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Just Published (March, 187C), 

MADYIG'S LATIN GRAMMAR. 

CABEFULLY REVISED BY THOMAS A. THACHER, YALE COLLEGE. 

The most complete and valuable Treatise on the language yet published, and 
admirably adapted to the wants of Teachers and College Classes. Price tc 
Teachers, $2.30. 



From the Preface to Prof. Goodwin's Greek Moods and Tenses. 

I ca'n hardly express my great indebtedness to Madvig. The works 
of this eminent scholar have aided me not only by the material which 
they have afforded, as a basis for the present work, but also by the 
valuable suggestions with which they abound. 



From Prof. E. P. Crowell. 

Amherst College, Feb. 28, 1870. 
Gentlemen, — The copy of Madvig's "Latin Grammar " you sent 
me is received. I enclose the price, and the amount of postage. I shall 
not fell to commend it most heartily to my students at an early day. 



From Prof Charles Short. 

Columbia College, Ky., March 22, 1870. 
Professor Madvig is known as one of the greatest of living classical 
scholars, — great in Greek as well as in Latin. His " Greek Syntax n I 
have often used and, always with great advantage. His " Latin Gram- 
mar " had been among my books of reference for several years in the 
translation of Mr. Wood, of Oxford, and I was glad to find, last autumn, 
so exact a scholar as my friend Professor Thacher engaged in revising 
this translation, and in incorporating into it the subsequent improvements 
of the author. It has been published by Messrs. Ginn Brothers & Co., 
of Boston ; and we congratulate American teachers and students that they 
can now procure this valuable work in as handsome a form as the Oxford 
edition, in an enlarged and improved state, and that at one-third of the 
English price. 

(2) 



CRAIK'S 

ENGLISH OF SHAKESPEARE, 



Harvard College, 
Yale College, 
Amherst College, 



^USED IN 

Cornell University, 
New Jersey College, Princeton, 
Upper Iowa University, 
Rochester University, &c. 



ALSO, IN MANY OF OUR BEST HIGH SCHOOLS, LIKE CAMBRIDGE, CHELSEA, 
SALEM, ROCHESTER, ETC. 



For 1870, students may prepare themselves in Craik's "English of .Shake- 
speare " or in Milton's " Comus." — Harvard Catalogue for 1869-70. 

THIRD AMERICAN EDITION, REVISED BY W. J. ROLFE. 

The student of Shakespeare should begin by mastering the English 
of Shakespeare. This he can best do by the study of this book, which is 
the most complete commentary ever written on any one of the plays. It 
contains, also, many illustrative references to the other plays, which 
render it a valuable aid to the reading of all of them. It is at once an 
introduction and a companion to every edition oj Shakespeare, 

From the North-American Review. 

The philological commentary is the fullest discussion yet given to the lan- 
guage of any of Shakespeare's plays. . . . The work of the American editor is 
admirably done throughout. The additional illustrations are numerous; they 
are always pertinent and interesting, and the}'- show scholarship of the right 
sort. The omissions are well judged. Many errors and careless remarks are 
deleted. Where notes are rewritten, they are clearer and briefer. 

From Prof. F. J. Child, of Harvard College. 

Craik's "English of Shakespeare" is an excellent work, and has received 
many improvements from Mr. Rolfe. There is no book of its dimensions that I 
know of, out of which so much may be learned about the English language. . . . 
It is one of the only two or three books which are both fit to be used and within 
the means of students. 

From S. H. Taylor, LL.D., Principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. 

It would be of great service to the young, if the work were introduced as a 
text-book in all our High Schools and Academies. The philological study of 
the English language has been too much neglected ; the right use of this book 
will be found one of the best means of remedying this defect. 

(4) 









AN 



f~c 



ELEMENTARY 



GREEK GRAMMAR. 



BY 



WILLIAM W. GOODWIN, Ph. D., 

ELIOT PROFESSOR OF GREEK LITERATURE IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 






SECOND EDITION. 



BOSTON: 
GINN BROTHERS 
1871. 



•?^i 



!.' 



\ 



<^ 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, 

BY WILLIAM W. GOODWIN, 

in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



LC Control Number 




tmp96 031259 



University Press: Welch, Bigelow, & Co. 
Cambridge. 



PREFACE. 



I HA YE attempted to make a G-reek Grammar in which the facts 
and principles of the language shall be stated in as concise a form 
as is consistent with clearness and precision. The plan has been to 
exclude all detail which belongs to a bo»k of reference, and to admit 
whatever will aid a pupil in mastering the great principles of G-reek 
Grammar. The statement of the forms in Part Second has been con- 
densed proportionally more than the Syntax. This has been done 
from a conviction that the chief principles of Syntax are a more 
profitable study for a pupil in the earlier years of his classical course 
than the details of vowel-changes and exceptional forms which are 
often thought to be more seasonable. The study of G-reek Syntax, 
when it is viewed as an aid to reading and not as an ultimate end, 
gives the pupil an insight into the processes of thought of a highly 
cultivated people ; and while it stimulates his own powers of thought, 
it teaches him habits of more careful expression, by making him 
familiar with many forms of statement more precise than those to 
which he has been accustomed. The Greek Syntax, as it was de- 
veloped and refined by the Athenians, is an important chapter in the 
history of thought, and even those whose classical studies are con- 
fined to the rudiments cannot afford to omit this entirely. Nothing, 
in my opinion, does greater injustice to the pupil, and nothing does 
more to bring classical scholarship into discredit, than a system of 
teaching which employs only the memory and discourages all exercise 
of thought. 

Teachers must decide how far the experiment of separating the 
principles of Grammar from the equally necessary Grammar of ref- 
erence is a successful one. It certainly will not be successful, unless 
it is understood that all who continue their classical studies beyond 



IV PREFACE. 

the school, and especially all classical teachers, must use larger works 
than the present for reference. I need not mention the many gram- 
matical works, both in English and in German, which are accessible 
to scholars. 

In preparing this work, I have availed myself freely of the labors 
of my predecessors. Most of the work of collecting facts has been 
done so often and so well, that originality is now impossible except 
in combining and condensing. I am especially indebted to the gram- 
mars of Hadley and Sophocles, and to the German works of Kriiger 
and Madvig. The best examples to illustrate the Syntax have gen- 
erally been used by others, and I have not hesitated to use them again. 
In this, as in other matters of detail, it is impossible to give credit in 
an elementary work. The division of verbs into nine classes (in § 108) 
is that of G-. Curtius, as improved by Hadley and published in his 
Greek Grammar in 1860. Here, and in many other cases, I am 
greatly indebted to the kindness of Professor Hadley for permission 
to use his valuable material. The sections on the Syntax of the 
Verb are generally condensed from my larger work, " Syntax of the 
Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb," to which I must refer more 
advanced students, and especially teachers, for a fuller exposition of 
many matters which are here merely hinted at. I have not hesitated 
to introduce here (for the first time in an elementary book) a brief 
statement of the new classification of conditional sentences, with its 
application to relative sentences, which is contained in my larger 
work. I cannot help hoping that the new statement of this and 
similar subjects may do something to remove the traditional obscurity 
which surrounds this department of Syntax. More space is given to 
examples here than elsewhere, from the nature of the subject. 

The Catalogue of Irregular Verbs professes to give only the strictly 
classic forms. In deciding on the admission of each form, I have 
relied chiefly on Veitch's "Greek Verbs Irregular and Defective," 
which gives the authorities for the use of each tense. This work of 
616 pages, published in the Oxford " Clarendon Press Series," is a 
lexicon in itself, and of the greatest value to the classical scholar. I 
am glad to be able to state, that Sophocles's valuable Catalogue of 
Greek Verbs, with its tables and remarks, is to be published in a new 
form. This will be welcomed by American scholars as the most avail- 
able manual for common use. 









PREFACE. V 

Teachers who use this Grammar are advised to make their pupils 
first familiar with the largest type, including the paradigms ; then to 
unite the first and second types ; and finally, the first, second, and 
third. A very few notes in still smaller type (see pp. 2, 26, 81, 85) 
are intended rather as suggestions to the teacher than as lessons for 
the pupil. I am strongly of the opinion that a pupil should begin to 
translate easy sentences as soon as he has finished the paradigm of 
the -verb in ft, the few principles of syntax which he will need being 
explained by the teacher. While I have no faith in classical learning 
which is not based on a systematic study of grammar, I think that 
translation, both from Greek into English and from English into 
Greek, can hardly begin too soon. I fear that the opposite course 
may often do more to stifle enthusiasm than to encourage systematic 
study. 

In introducing matters which are connected with Comparative Phi- 
lology, especially in the prominence given to roots and stems in Part 
Second, I have been guided by the opinion of many scholars who are 
authorities in these matters. I am happy to be confirmed in my own 
opinion that it is inexpedient to designate Greek nouns and verbs by 
their stems (as is done in Sanskrit) rather than in the usual way. 
Comparative Philology is a progressive science, and its views are 
apt to change ; for example, I cannot think it advisable to teach boys 
to call the noun usually called iXnls by the strange name iXnid-, as 
long as the leading scholars of Europe are not even agreed whether 
the stem is really iXmd- or e\7ri-. 

I have not thought that the subject of Pronunciation, in its only 
practical form, belongs properly to Grammar. The important question 
of the ancient sounds of the letters requires too much learned discussion 
for beginners, and the subject is too extensive to be treated in a work 
like this. I refer all who are interested in it to the works of Pro- 
fessor Sophocles, especially his "History of the Greek Alphabet." 
His learning enables him to speak with the highest authority on the 
subject. A very different question, it seems to me, is the practical 
one, How are boys to be taught to pronounce Greek in our schools ? 
Even if we had a complete ancient account of Greek pronunciation, — 
which we are very far from having, — it would be a much harder task 
to teach boys of the present day to follow it than it would be to 
teach them to pronounce German or French by rules without the 



VI PBEFACE. 

help of the voice. The two most important considerations in regard 
to practical Greek pronunciation are simplicity and uniformity. It is 
more than a quarter of a century since any system could claim notice 
in this country on the ground of uniformity. Even that monstrosity, 
the so-called " English system," which saddled the Greek at once with 
English rowel-sounds and Latin accents, is now unintelligible to the 
majority of our scholars ; and it is not likely that a system which 
requires the use of a foreign system of accentuation will ever- be 
generally adopted. The American Philological Association, in meet- 
ings at which scholars from every part of the country were present, 
has twice recommended almost (or quite) unanimously that American 
scholars should unite on a system of pronouncing Greek with the 
written accents and the u continental " sound of the vowels. This 
recommendation seems more likely to result in some approach to 
uniformity than any other that has been made. The term " conti- 
nental " seems to be used here to denote the sounds of a. e, and i 
which prevail on the Continent of Europe, as opposed to the English 
sounds of these letters. To those who wish for a more special 
recommendation, I would suggest the following system, which I follow 
chiefly from its simplicity and because it is adopted by many leading 
scholars in different parts of this country : — 

a as a in father, rj as e in fete, e as e in men. t as i in machine, a aso 
in note, v as French u ; short vowels merelv shorter than the Ion? 
vowels ; — ai as a?" in aisle, u as ei in height. 01 as oi in oil. vt as ui in 
quit or ici in with, av as ou in house, ev as eu in feud, ov as oo in moon ; 
a, 77, co, like a, 77. co : — the consonants as in English, except that y 
before k, y. or ^ has the sound of n. but elsewhere is hard ; that 6 is 
always like th in thin ; and that % is always hard, like German ch. 

In conclusion I must express my obligations to the proprietors of 
the University Press, who have placed five fonts of Porson type at 
my disposal in printing this work. 

W. TV". GOODWIN. 
Harvard College, October 8, 1870. 



PREFACE 

TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

In this edition many misprints and other accidental errors 
have been corrected, and an Index has been added. The only 
change affecting references to the first edition has been made 
by adding § 138, Note 8, which includes what was contained in 
§ 136, Note 2. The only other changes affecting the sense will 
be found in § 46, 3 ; § 48, 2, Note ; § 192, 5 ; § 202, 2, N. 1 ; 
§ 283, 8; § 291, 3; and under iot^/u in the Catalogue of Yerbs : 
in these passages slight additions have been made. In § 9, 3, 
Note, the word "and" has been inserted after " plural," having 
been accidentally omitted. 

I am much indebted to the kindness of many friends who 
have informed me of misprints and other errors in the first 
edition, and I shall always be grateful for similar information. 

W. w. a. 

January 30, 1871. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction. — The Greek Language and Dialects 



Page 
xix 



PART I. — LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. 



1. The Alphabet .... 
§§ 2, 3. Vowels and Diphthongs . 
§ 4. Breathings .... 
§§ 5-7. Consonants and their Divisions 
§ 8. Collision of Yowels. — Hiatus . 
§ 9. Contraction of Yowels . 

§ 10. Synizesis 

§ 11. Crasis 

§12. Elision ..... 
§ 13. Movable Consonants . 
§ 14. Metathesis and Syncope . 

15-17. Euphony of Consonants 
§ 18. Syllables and their Division 

i§ 19, 20. Quantity of Syllables . 

f§ 21-23. General Principles of Accent 
§ 24. Accent of Contracted Syllables 
§ 25. Accent of Nouns 
26. Accent of Verbs . 

!§ 27, 28. Enclitics .... 

29. Proclitics .... 

30. Dialectic Changes in Letters 

31. Punctuation-Marks 



. 1 

2 

. 2,3 

3 

. 4 

4,5 

. 5 

5, 6 

6 

6 

. 7 

7-9 

. 9 

10 

10, 11 

12 

12, 13 

13, 14 

14, 15 
15 

15, 16 
16 



PART II. — INFLECTION. 



32. Definitions. — Root, Stem, Ending 

33. Numbers, Genders, Cases 



. 17 
17, 18 



NOUNS. 



§ 34. Three Declensions of Nouns .... 
§§ 35, 36. Stems and Terminations of First Declension . 
§ 37. Paradigms of First Declension .... 



. 18 

18, 19 

19, 20 



vm 



CONTENTS. 



§38. 

§39. 

§§40, 

§42. 

§43. 

§44. 

§45. 

§46. 

§47. 

§48. 

§49. 

§50. 

§§51- 

§57. 

§58. 

§59. 

§60. 

§61. 



Contract Nouns of First Declension . . • 

Dialects of First Declension 

41. Stems and Terminations of Second Declension 
Paradigms of Second Declension .... 
Contract Nouns of Second Declension . 
Dialects of Second Declension ..... 
Stems and Case-Endings of Third Declension 
Nominative Singular of Third Declension 
Accusative Singular of Third Declension 
Vocative Singular of Third Declension 
Dative Plural of Third Declension 
Paradigms of uncontracted Nouns of Third Declension 
-56. Paradigms of contract Nouns of Third Declension 
Syncopated Nouns of Third Declension 
Gender of Third Declension . . ... 
Dialects of Third Declension ..... 
Irregular Nouns . . . . 
Local Endings, -6i } -6ev, -de, &c 

ADJECTIVES. 



§§ 62-64. Adjectives of First and Second Declensions 

§ 65. Contract of First and Second Declension . 

§ QQ. Adjectives of Third Declension 

§ Q7. First and Third Declensions combined 

§ 68. Participles in -on>, -as, -ets, -us, -ws 

§ 69. Contract Participles in -auv, -eaw, -oaw 

§ 70. Declension of ixeyas, ttoXijs, and irpaos . 



Comparison of Adjectives. 

§ 71. Comparison by -repos, 

§ 72. Comparison by 

§ 73. Irregular Comparison 



■raros 



•LOJP, -ICTOS 



ADVERBS AND THEIR COMPARISON. 

§ 74. Adverbs formed from Adjectives .... 
§ 75. Comparison of Adverbs 

NUMERALS. 

§ 76. Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers, and Numeral Adverbs 
§ 77. Declension of Cardinal Numbers .... 





20 


. 


21 




21 


21, 


22 




23 


. 


23 




24 


24, 


25 


25, 


26 


. 


26 




27 


27- 


-29 


29- 


-34 


34, 


35 




36 


, 


36 


36, 


37 


• 


38 


38, 


39 


40, 


41 


41, 


42 


42, 


43 


43- 


-45 


45, 


46 


46, 


47 


47, 


48 




48 


49, 


50 




50 


50, 


51 


51, 


52 


52, 


53 



THE ARTICLE. 



§ 78. Declension of 6, rj, t6 53, 54 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



PRONOUNS. 

§ 79. Personal and Intensive Pronouns 

§ 80. Reflexive Pronouns 

§ 81. Reciprocal Pronoun 

§ 82. Possessive Pronouns . 

§ 83. Demonstrative Pronouns 

§§ 84, 85. Interrogative and Indefinite Proi 

§ 86. Relative Pronouns .... 

§ 87. Pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs 



VERBS. 

§§ 88-91. Voices, Moods, Tenses, Persons 

§ . 92. Principal Parts of a Greek Verb .... 

§ 93. Verbs in w and Verbs in fxi 

Conjugation of Verbs in «. 
§ 94. Pure, Mute, and Liquid Verbs , 

§ 95. 1. Synopsis of the Regular Verb inw . 

2. Meaning of the Forms of the Verb . 
§ 96. Paradigm of the Regular Verb inw. 
§ 97. Future and Aorist Active and Middle of Liquid Verb 
§ 98. Periphrastic Forms in certain Tenses 

Augment. 

§ 99. Syllabic and Temporal Augment defined 

§ 100. Syllabic Augment of Imperfect and Aorist 

§ 101. Reduplication in Perfect and Pluperfect 

§ 102. Temporal Augment 

§ 103. Syllabic Augment prefixed to a Vowel . * 

§ 104. Attic Reduplication ..... 

§ 105. Augment of Compound Verbs 

Verbal Stems. 

§ 106. Lengthening the final Vowel of the Stem in Pure Verbs . 

§ 107. Simple Stem . 

§ 108. Formation of Present from Simple Stem. — Nine Classes 

Verbs 

§ 109. Modification of Simple Stem in certain Tenses 

§ 110. Characteristics of the Tenses 

§ 111. Special Tense-Stems . ... 



of 



Endings and Connecting Vowels. 

§ 112. Personal Endings of the Indicative .... 
§ 113. Formation of Perfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist — Passive. — 
Endings added directly to the Tense-Stem . 



54, 55 

55, 56 

. 56 
56 

56, 57 
58 

. 59 
60, 61 



61, 62 

62 

. 62 



62 
. 63 

64 
64-72 
73, 74 
74-76 



76 

. 77 
77 

77,78 
78 

. 78 

78, 79 



. 79 
79, 80 

80-82 

82, 83 
83 

83, 84 



84, 85 

85, 86 



X CONTENTS. 

§114. 1. Connecting Vowels of the Indicative . . . .86,87 
2. Personal Endings of Indicative with Connecting Vowel . 87, 88 

§ 115. Terminations of the Subjunctive 88 

§116. Terminations of the Optative 88,89 

§ 117. Terminations of the Imperative 89, 90 

§ 118. Terminations of the Infinitive 90 

§ 119. Stems and Endings of Participles and Verbals . . .90 
§§ 120, 121. Peculiar forms of Future and Aorist. — Liquid Verbs 91 

§ 122. Dialectic forms of Verbs in w 91, 93 

Contract Verbs. 

§ 123. Paradigm of Pres. and Imperf. of Verbs in -aw, -eu, -ow . 93-95 
§124. Dialectic forms of Contract Verbs 96 

Verbs in jau 

§125. General character of Verbs in /u . ..... 97 

§ 126. 1. Synopsis of Verbs in -rjfii, -ay-u, -vfu . . . 97, 98 
2. Paradigms of peculiar Tenses . .... 98-104 

§ 127. Peculiarities in certain Tenses 105 

§ 128. Dialectic forms of Verbs in fit . ... . . 106 

§129. Irregular Verbs in fxt 106-110 

§ 130. Second Perfect and Pluperfect of ^i-form . . . 110, 111 

COMPOUND WORDS. 

§ 131. Formation of Compounds 112 

§ 132. Inseparable Prefixes 112 

PAKT III. — SYNTAX. 

§ 133. Subject, Predicate, Object 113 

§134. 1. Subject Nominative (of finite verbs) . . . . 113 

2. Subject Accusative (of infinitive) .... 113, 114 

Notes. Subject omitted. — Impersonal Verbs . . 114 

§ 135. Subject Nominative and Verb 114, 115 

§ 136.' Predicate in same case as Subject 115 

§137. Apposition .115,116 

ADJECTIVES. 

§ 138. Adjectives agreeing with Nouns 116, 117 

§ 139. Adjective used as a Noun 118 

THE ARTICLE. 

§140. Homeric use of the Article (as Pronoun) .... 118 

§141. Attic use of the Article (as definite Article) . . . 119, 120 

§ 142. Position of the Article 120-122 

§ 143. Pronominal Article in Attic (6 /jl€v . . . 6 5i, &c.) . . 122, 123 






CONTENTS. XI 

PRONOUNS. 
§§ 144, 145. Personal and Intensive Pronouns . . . 123, 124 

§ 146. Reflexive Pronouns 124 

§ 147. Possessive Pronouns 124, 125 

§ 148. Demonstrative Pronouns 125 

§ 149. Interrogative Pronoun 125, 126 

§ 150. Indefinite Pronoun 126 

§ 151. Relative Pronoun agreeing with. Antecedent . . 126, 127 

§ 152. Relative Pronoun with omitted Antecedent . . . .127 
§§ 153, 154. Relative Pronoun — Assimilation and Attraction 127, 128 

§ 155. Relative Pronoun in Exclamations 128 

§ 156. Relative Pronoun not repeated in a new case . . 128, 129 

THE CASES. 

1. Nominative and Vocative. 

§ 157. 1. Nominative, as Subject or Predicate 129 

2. Vocative used in addressing 129 

II. Accusative. 

§ 158. Accusative of Direct Object 129, 130 

§ 159. Cognate Accusative 130 

§160. 1. Accusative of Specification (Synecdoche) . . . .131 

2. Adverbial Accusative 131 

§ 161. Accusative of extent of time or space 131 

§ 162. Terminal Accusative (Poetic) . . ' . . . . .131 
§ 163. Accusative after N97 and Md - 132 

Two Accusatives with Verbs signifying 
§ 164. To ash, teach, clothe, conceal, deprive, #-c. . . . . .132 

§165. To do anything to or say anything of a person . . . 132,133 
§ 166. To name, appoint, consider, frc 133 

HI. Genitive. 

§ 167. Genitive after Nouns (Adnominal) . . . . 133, 134 

§ 168. Partitive Genitive (specially) 134, 135 

§ 169. Genitive after Verbs signifying to be, become, belong, &c. 135, 135 

§ 170. Partitive Genitive after Verbs . . . " . . .136 
§ 171. Genitive after Verbs signifying 

1. To take hold of, touch, claim, hit, begin, &c. . . . 136 

2. To taste, smell, hear, remember , desire, spare, despise, &c. . 136, 137 

3. To rule or command ....... 137 

§ 172. 1. Genitive after Verbs of fulness and want . . . .138 

2. Accusative and Genitive after Verbs signifying to fill . 138 
§ 173. Causal Genitive, — 

1. After Verbs expressing praise, pity, anger, envy, &c. . .138 

2. After Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, &c. . . 139 

3. In Exclamations 139 



Xll CONTENTS. 

§174. Genitive as Ablative. — Genitive of Separation . . 139,140 
§ 175. 1. " " Genitive after Comparative . . .140 

2. " " Genitive with Verbs of surpassing, &c. 140 

§ 176. 1. " " Genitive of Source . . . .140 

2. " " Genitive (poetic) of Agent or Instrument 140 

§ 177. Genitive after Compound Verbs 141 

§ 178. Genitive of Price or Value 141 

Note. Genitive after a£tos and d^tow 141 

§179. 1. Genitive of Time within which 141 

2. Genitive of Place within which (poetic) . . . .141 

§ 180. Objective Genitive with Verbal Adjectives .... 142 
§ 181. Possessive Genitive with Adjectives denoting possession, kc. . 142 

§ 182. Genitive with Adverbs 143 

§ 183. Genitive Absolute (see also § 278, 1) 143 

IV. Dative. 

Remarks. — Various functions of the Dative . . . .144 
§ 184. Dative expressing to ovfor : — 

1. Dative of Indirect Object 144 

2. Dative after certain intransitive Verbs . . . .144 

3. Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage 145 

Note 5. Ethical Dative 146 

4. Dative of Possession (with eI/jlL, kc.) . . . . .146 

5. Dative denoting that with respect to which, kc. . . 146 
§185. Dative after Adjectives kindred to preceding Verbs . . .146 
§ 186. Dative of Resemblance and Union .... 146, 147 

Note 1. Dat. after Verbs signifying to discourse or contend with 147 

§ 187. Dative after Compound Verbs 147 

§ 188. 1. Dative of Cause, Manner, Means, and Instrument . 147, 148 

Note 2. Dative after xP^°f JLa h to us e 148 

2. Dative of degree of difference (with comparatives) . . 148 

3. Dative of Agent (with perf. and plup. pass.) . . .148 

4. Dative of Agent (with Verbal in -t£os or -t4ov). . . 148 

5. Dative of Accompaniment (sometimes with avrbs) . .149 

§ 189. Dative of Time 149 

§ 190. Dative of Place (poetic) 149 

Note. Occasional use in prose (names of Attic denies) . 150 

PREPOSITIONS. 

§§ 191, 192. Prepositions with Genitive, Dative, and Accusative 150, 151 
§ 193. Prepositions in Composition taking their own cases . . . 151 

ADVERBS. 
§ 194. Adverbs qualifying Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs . . 151 



CONTENTS. 



Xlll 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

Voices. 

195. Active Voice 152 

196. Passive Voice 152 

197. Agent after Passive Verbs (viro and Genitive) . . . .152 

Note 2. Passive construction when Active has two cases 152, 153 

198. Cognate Accusative made subject of Passive .... 153 

199. Middle Voice (three uses) 153, 154 



Tenses. 
Tenses of the Indicative. 

200. Tenses of the Indicative (time of each) . 

201. Primary and Secondary Tenses of Indicative 



202. 



Tenses of Dependent Moods. 



Not in Indirect Discourse (chiefly Present and Aorist) 

1. Distinction between Present and Aorist in this case 

2. Perfect not in Indirect Discourse (seldom used) . 

3. Future Infinitive not in Indir. Disc, (exceptional) . 

4. Future Optative (never used except in Ind. Disc.) 

203. Optative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse 

Note 1. Present Infinitive and Optative includes Imperfect 159 
Note 2. Infinitive after Verbs of hoping, promising, &c. (two 
constructions allowed) 159 

204. Tenses of the Participle 159,160 



154- 


-156 


• 


156 




156 


156, 


157 


. 


157 


157, 


158 


. 


158 


158, 


159 



Gnomic and Iterative Tenses. 

205. 1. Gnomic Present, expressing habit or general truth 

2. Gnomic Aorist " " " " 

3. Gnomic Perfect 

206. Iterative Imperfect and Aorist with &v . . 



160 
160 
161 
161 



The Particle "Ay. 

207. Two uses of the Adverb "Av .... 

208. "Av with the Indicative. 

1. Never with Present or Perfect . 

2. With Future (chiefly Homeric) 

3. With Secondary Tenses (§ 222) . 

209. v Av with the Subjunctive 

210. "Av with the Optative (always in apodosis) 

211. "Av with the Infinitive and Participle (in apodosis) 

212. Position of av. — "Av repeated, or used in ellipsis 



161, 162 

. 162 
162 

. 162 
162 

. 162 

162, 163 
. 163 



XIV CONTENTS. 

The Moods. 
General Statement and Classification, 

§ 213. 1. Various uses of Indicative . . * . . . . 164 

2. Various uses of Subjunctive . 164 

3. Various uses of Optative . . . . 164, 165 

4. The Imperative 165 

5. The Infinitive : 165 

§214. Classification of Constructions of Moods 165 

I. Final and Object Clauses after IVa, «$, S-rrtos, p.rj. 

§ 215. Three classes of these clauses 165 

N"ote 1. Negative particle in these clauses . . . 166 
§ 216. Final Clauses (after all the Final Particles) — 

1. "With Subjunctive and Optative . . . . . 166 

2. With Subjunctive after secondary tenses . . .166, 167 

3. "With Secondary tenses of Indicative 167 

§ 217. Object Clauses with mr<as after Verbs of Striving, &c. . .167 

ZSTote 4. "07TWS or oVcos /itj with Fut. Ind. (elliptically) . 168 

§ 218. Object Clauses with /jltj after Verbs of Fearing, &c. . . .168 

Xote 2. 31 7) or o7rojs fxr] used elliptically . . 168, 169 

Note 3. M?) with present or past tenses of Indicative . 169 

II. Conditional Sentences. 

§ 219. 1. Definition of protasis and apodosis . . , . .169 

2. Use of av (Horn, kc) in protasis and apodosis . . .169 

3. Negative particles in protasis and apodosis . . .169 
§220. Classification of Conditional Sentences . . . .169-172 

Particular Suppositions. 

§ 221. Present and past Conditions with simple Indicative . . 172 
Note. Future sometimes used in these conditions . .172 

§ 222. Present and past conditions with secondary tenses of Indica- 
tive {av in apodosis") 172, 173 

Xote 1. "Av sometimes omitted in the apodosis . . 173 
Note 2. "Edei, €XPV V > & c - with Infin. in apodosis (without av) 173 

§223. Future conditions — Subjunctive with kdv . . . 173,174 
Note 1. Future Indie, with el in protasis . . .174 
Note 2. Ei (without av or k4) in protasis (Homeric) . .174 

§ 224. Future conditions — Optative in protasis and apodosis . . 174 
Note. *Ap very rarely omitted here 174 

General Suppositions. 

§ 225. Subjunctive and Optative in protasis .... 174, 175 
Note 1. Indicative with el (occasionally) . . . .175 



CONTENTS. XV 

Peculiar Forms of Conditional Sentences. 

§ 226. 1. Protasis contained in Participle or other word . 175, 176 

2. Protasis omitted — Indie, or Opt. with &v alone . . 176 

3. Infin. or Partic. in apodosis — sometimes with av . . 176 
§ 227. 1. Protasis and Apodosis of different classes . . . .177 

2. Ae introducing an apodosis . . . . . .177 

§ 228. Et after Yerbs of wondering (davfidfa), &c 177 

III. Relative and Temporal Sentences. 

§ 229. Definite and Indefinite Antecedent explained . . 177, 178 

§ 230. Relative with Definite Antecedent 178 

§ 231. Relative with Indefinite Antecedent — Conditional Relative 178 

§ 232. Four forms of Conditional Relative sentence in particular suppo- 
sitions (as in protasis §§ 221 - 224) . . . 178, 179 

§ 233. Conditional Relative sentences in general suppositions (as in 

protasis, § 225) 

Note 1. Indicative with 6<ttls for Subj. with 6s &v 

§ 234. Peculiar Forms in Conditional Relative sentences . 

§ 235. Assimilation in Conditional Relative sentences . 

§ 236. Relative clauses expressing Purpose (with Fut. Ind.) 

Note 1. Subj. and Opt. in this construction (Homeric) 
Note 2. 'E<p' <J or ecf> £re with Future Indicative 

§ 237. "Q<tt€ (sometimes ws) with Indicative . 

§ 238. Causal Relative Sentences 

Temporal Particles signifying Until, B efo re that 

§ 239. Constructions after ecos, eWe, &XP L > & c -> unt ^ • • 182 

§ 240. Upiv with the finite moods . . ... . 182, 183 

Note. Uplv tj, irparepov yj, irpoadev rj, used like irplv . 183 

IV. Indirect Discourse. 

§ 241. Direct and Indirect Quotations and Questions .... 183 
Note. Meaning of expression Indirect Discourse . . 183 
§ 242. General principles of Indirect Discourse. — Use of &v. — 

Negative particles . . . . . . . .184 

Simple Sentences in Indirect Discourse. 

§ 243. Indie, and Opt. after on or cus, and in Indirect Questions 184, 185 

Note 1. Pres. Opt. occasionally represents Imperfect . 185 

§ 244. Subj. or Opt. in Indir. Questions representing Interrog. Subj. 186 

§ 245. Indie, or Opt. with av (unchanged) . . . . . .186 

§ 246. Infinitive and Participle in Indirect Quotations . . 186, 187 
Note. When Infinitive stands in indirect discourse . . 187 



. 179, 


180 


. 


180 




180 


180, 


181 


. , 


181 


c) . 


181 




181 


. 


181 


. 181, 
t. 


182 



XVI CONTENTS. 






Indirect Quotation of Compound Sentences. 

§247. Rule for dependent clauses in Indirect Quotation . . 187, 188 
Note 1. One verb changed to Optative, while another is 

unchanged 188 

Note 2. When dependent Aor. Indie, can be changed to Opt. 188 
§248. Single dependent clauses in indirect discourse, independently 

of the rest of the sentence — Four classes . . 188-190 

§219. 1. "Oirus used for ws in Indirect Quotation (rare) . . .190 

"2. Homeric use of 6 for otl (rare) 190 






V. Causal Sentences. 

§ 250. Causal Sentences with Indicative 190 

Note. Optative sometimes used (on principle of § 248) 190 

VI. Expression of a Wish. 

§251. 1. Optative in Wishes (with or without eWe, &c.) . . .191 

2. Indicative in Wishes (with effle, &c.) . . . 191 

Note 1. "QcpeXov with Infinitive in Wishes . . . 191 

Note 2. Origin of the forms of Wishes .... 191 

VII. Imperative and Subjunctive in Commands and Prohibitions, &c. 

§ 252. Imperative in Commands, Exhortations, &c 192 

§ 253. First person of Subjunctive in Exhortations . . .192 

§ 254. Present Imper. or Aor. Subj. in Prohibitions . . . .192 

VIII. Subj. like Fut. Indie, in Homer. — Interrog. Subj. — Subj. and Fut. 

Indie, with ov |xrj. 

§ 255. Homeric use of the Subjunctive as simple future . . 192, 193 
§ 256. Interrogative Subjunctive (Questions of doubt) . . . 193 
§ 257. Subjunctive and Future Indicative with ov ix-q . . 193 

The Infinitive. 

§ 258. Infinitive as Verbal Noun 193 

§ 259. Infinitive as Subject (Nom. or Accus.) or Predicate (Nom.) 193, 194 
§ 260. Infinitive as Object of a Verb : — 

1. Not in Indirect Discourse (chiefly present and aorist) . 1$4 

2. In Indirect Discourse (with time of tenses preserved) 194, 195 
§ 261. Infinitive with Adjectives and Adverbs .... 195, 196 
§ 262. 1. Infinitive (with the article) after a Preposition . . .196 

2. Infinitive (with the article) as Genitive or Dative . . . 196 
§ 263. 1. Infinitive (with or without rod and jultj) after Verbs of hin- 
drance, &c. — Four forms 196,197 

Note. Double Negative act? ov with this Infinitive . . 197 
2. Infinitive with to firj (or to /jlj] ov) after Verbs of negative 

meaning 197 

§ 264. Infinitive with adjuncts and the Article, as Noun . . . 197 



CONTENTS. 



XV11 



265. Infinitive expressing a Purpose 

§ 266, 267. Infinitive after were (<bs), and i<p' $ or e<p' $re 
267. Absolute Infinitive (generally with cjs or oaov) 
NOTE. 'E/ccb*' elvat, willingly, to vvv ehai, &C. 

269. Infinitive as Imperative 

270. Infinitive expressing a wish, like Optative 

271. Infinitive in Laws, Treaties, Proclamations, &c. . 

272. Infinitive (with or without to) expressing surprise . 

273. Infinitive in Narration (with verb understood) . 

274. Infinitive with wpiu (see also § 240) .... 

The Participle. 

§ 275. Participle as Verbal Adjective — three uses 

§ 276. 1. Participle with a Noun (expressing simple attribute) 

2. Participle with Article = he who with a Verb . 
§ 277. Participle defining the circumstances of an action : — 

1-6. Various relations denoted by this participle . 
Notes. Various Adverbs used with this participle . 
§ 278. 1. Genitive Absolute (see also § 183) 

2. Accusative Absolute (of Impersonal Verbs) . 
§ 279. Participle with Verbs (like Infinitive) : — 

1. With Verbs signifying begin, cease, endure, find, &c. 

2. With \av6avu, Tvyx&vu, and cf>6avu 

3. With irepiopau and h<f>opau), overlook, &c. 

§ 280. Participle (like Infin.) in Indirect Discourse (§ 246) . 
Note 1. Ar)\os or <f>avep6s elfii with Participle 
Note 2. 2&>ot5a and o~vyyiyvwo~K<a with a Participle 
Nom. or Dat 



198 
. 198 

198, 199 
. 199 

199 
. 199 

199 
. 199 

199, 200 
. 200 

200 

. 200 

200 

. 201 

202 

. 202 

202, 203 

. 203 
203 

. 204 
204 

. 204 
in 



281. 



282. 



§ 283. 



204 

Verbal Adjectives in -tcos and -tcov. 

1. Personal construction of Verbal in -reos .... 205 

2. Impersonal Verbal in -tcov (or -Tea) .... 205 

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

1. Direct and Indirect Interrogatives 205 

2. Direct Interrogatives — *H, &pa, ov, fir), /xuv . . 205, 206 

3. "AMo tl rj ; or &X\o tl ; . . . . .206 

4. Indirect Questions with el (Homeric rj or f)4) . . . 206 

5. Alternative Questions — IloTepop . . . r), &c. . . . 206 

NEGATIVES. 

1, 2. Ov or fjLf) with Indie, Subj., Opt., and Imper. . 206, 207 

3. Negative with Infinitive 207 

4, 5. Negative with Participle and Adjective ... 207 

6. M?? with Infin. after Verbs with negative idea (§ 263) . . 207 

7. M77 ov with Infinitive (after negative leading verb) 207, 208 

8. Two or more negatives in one clause 208 



xvm 



CONTENTS. 



PART IV.— METRES. 

§ 284. Karnes and nature of Feet 209 

§ 285. Names of Verses — Catalexis 209 

§ 286. Kesolution and Contraction — Syllaba anceps . . . 210 
§287. Arsis and Thesis — Ictus (independent of Accent) . . . 210 

§ 288. Basis and Anacrusis 210 

§ 289. Caesura of the foot — Caesura of the verse . . . 210, 211 
§§ 290, 291. Trochaic Verses . . . . . . .211 

§§ 292, 293. Iambic Verses .211-213 

§§ 294, 295. Dactylic Verses 213, 214 

§§ 296, 297. Anapaestic Verses 214, 215 

§ 298. Anapaestic Systems. — Iambic and Trochaic Systems . . 215 

§§ 299, 300. Choriambic Verses 215, 216 

§ 301. Logaoedic Verses 216 



APPENDIX. 

Catalogue of Irregular Yerbs . 



217 



INTRODUCTION. 



THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND DIALECTS. 

THE Greek language is the language spoken by the Greek 
race. In the historic period, the people of this race called 
themselves by the name Hellenes, and their language Hellenic. 
We call them Greeks, from the Roman name Graeci. Thev were 
divided into Aeolians, Dorians, and Ionians. The Aeolians in- 
habited Aeolis (in Asia), Lesbos, Boeotia, and Thessaly ; the 
Dorians inhabited Peloponnesus, Doris, Crete, some cities of 
Caria with the neighboring islands, Southern Italy, and a large 
part of Sicily ; the Ionians inhabited Ionia (in Asia), Attica, 
many islands in the Aegean Sea, and some other places. 

In the early times of which the Homeric poems are a record, 
there was no such division of the whole Greek race into Aeoli- 
ans, Dorians, and Ionians as that which was recognized in 
historic times \ nor was there any common name of the whole 
race, like the later name of Hellenes. The Homeric Hellenes 
are a small tribe in Southeastern Thessaly. 

The dialects of the Aeolians and the Dorians are known as the 
. Aeolic and Doric dialects. In the language of the Ionians we 
must distinguish the Old Ionic, the New Ionic, and the Attic 
dialects. The Old Ionic or Epic is the language of the Homeric 
poems, the oldest Greek literature. The New Ionic was the 
language of Ionia in the fifth century B. C., as it appears in 
I Herodotus and Hippocrates. The Attic was the language of 
Athens during her period of literary eminence.* 

* The name Ionic includes both the Old and the !N"ew Ionic, but not the 
Attic. When the Old and the ISTew Ionic are to be distinguished in the 
present work, Ep. (for Epic) or Horn, (for Homeric) is used for the former, 
and Hdt. (Herodotus) for the latter. 



XX INTRODUCTION. 

The Attic dialect is the most cultivated form of the Greek 
language. It is therefore made the basis of Greek Grammar, 
and the other dialects are usually treated, for convenience, as 
if their forms were merely variations of the Attic. This is a 
position, however, to which the Attic has no claim on the ground 
of age or primitive forms, in respect to which it holds a rank 
below the other dialects. 

The literary and political importance of Athens caused her 
dialect gradually to supplant the others wherever Greek was 
spoken ; but, in this very extension, the Attic dialect itself 
was not a little modified. This universal Greek language, 
beginning with the Alexandrian period (283 B. C), is called the 
Common Dialect. The name Hellenistic is given to that form 
of the Common Dialect which was used by the Jews of Alexan- 
dria who made the Septuagint version of the Old Testament 
(283-135 B. C), and to the writers of the New Testament; 
all of whom were Hellenists (i. e. Jews who spoke Greek). The 
language which has been spoken by the Greeks during the last 
seven centuries is called Modern Greek, or Romaic. 

The Greek is descended from the same original language 
with the Indian (i. e. Sanskrit), Persian, German, Slavonic, 
Celtic, and Italian languages. It is most closely connected 
with the Italian languages (including Latin), to which it bears 
a relation similar to the still closer relation between French and 
Spanish. This relation accounts for the striking analogies be- 
tween Latin and Greek, which appear in both roots and termi- 
nations ; and also for the less obvious analogies between Greek 
and the German element in English, which are seen in a few 
words like me, is, know, &c. 



PART I 



LETTEES, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. 







THE ALPHABET. 




§1. 


The Greek Alphabet has twenty-four letters : — 


Form. 


Equivalent. 


Name. 


A 


a 


a 


"A\<f>a 


Alpha 


B 


/3 


b 


Brjra 


Beta 


r 


7 


g 


Tafjbfia 


Gamma 


A 


8 


d 


Ae\ra 


Delta 


E 


e 


e (short) 


E ^TKov 


Epsilon 


z 


? 


z 


Zr)ra 


Zeta 


H 


V 


e (long) 


*Hra 


Eta 


& 


e$ 


th 


Qrjra 


Theta 


J 


c 


• 
l 


lcora 


Iota 


K 


K 


k or hard c 


Kainra 


Kappa 


A 


X 


1 


Ad/j,/38a 


Lambda 


M 


V* 


m 


Mv 


Mu 


N 


V 


n 


Nv 


Nu 


,H 


z 


X 


Zl 


Xi 








o (short) 


U fUKpOV 


Omicron 


n 


7T 


P 


m 


Pi 


p 


P 


r 


'PS, 


Bho 


2 


<r 9 


s 


SiyfMa 


Sigma 


T 


T 


t 


Tad 


Tan 


r 


V 


u 


*T flXov 


Upsilon 


$ 


<f> 


ph 


$1 


Phi 


X 


X 


ch 


XI 


Chi 


V 


f 


ps 


Wi 


Psi 


n 


CO 


O (long) 


' S2 fieya 


Omega 



2 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§ 2. 

Note 1. At the end of a word the form s is used, elsewhere the 
form a ; thus, owracriff. 

N"ote 2. Two obsolete letters — Vau or Digamnuc (f or r), equivalent 
to F or W, and Koppa ( <? ), equivalent to Q — and also the character San 
(^)), a form of Sigma, are used as numerals (§ 76). The first of these was 
not entirely out of use when the Homeric poems were composed, and the 
metre of many verses hi these is explained only by admitting its presence. 

VOWELS AXD DIPHTHONGS. 

§ 2. The vowels are a, e, 77, i, o, co, and v. Of these, 
e and o are always short ; i) and co are ahvays long ; a, i, 
and v are sometimes short and sometimes long, whence 
they are called doubtful vowels. 

Note. A, e, 77, o, and co are called open vowels ; 1 and v are called 
close vowels. 

§ 3. There are seven diphthongs which begin with a 

short vowel, at, ec, oi, vt t dv, ev, ov\ and six which begin 

with a long vowel, a, rj, co, dv, r\v, cov (Ionic). 

In a, 77, co, the t is written below the first vowel, and is called iota 
subscript But in capitals it is written in the line; as in THI 
KQMQIAIAI, 777 KcofjLcpSia, and in "toi^ero, cpxero. This t was written 
as a regular letter as long as it was pronounced, that is, until the first 
century B. C. 

BREATHINGS. 

§ 4. 1. Every vowel or diphthong at the beginning of 
a word has either the rough breathing ( c ) or the smooth 
breathing ('). The rough breathing shows that the vowel 
is preceded by the sound of h ; the smooth breathing, that 
the vowel has its simple sound. Thus opcov, seeing, is pro- 
nounced horo'/i ; but dpcov, of mountains, is pronounced 
ifron. 

Note. A diphthong takes the breathing (like the accent) upon 
its second vowel. But a, 77, and co take it upon the first vowel, even 
when the t is written in the line. Thus o'txerai, cixppalvco, Alfxcoi/) but 
cpxero or "Qixcto, abco or *Ai§o, rjbcw or*H*8civ.' 



§ 7.] CONSONANTS. 3 

2. The consonant p is generally written p at the begin- 
ning of a word. In the middle of a word pp is often 
written pp. Thus prjrcop (rhetor), orator ; apprjros, unspeak-* 
able ; IIvppos, Pyrrhus (pp = rrh). 

t CONSONANTS. 

§ 5. 1. The consonants are divided into 
labials, tt, /3, <£, p, 
palatals, k, y, Xi 
Unguals, r, d, 6, £, a, X, v, p. 
2. The double consonants are £, yfr, £, S is composed of k and 
; yjf, of 7r and <r. Z is not composed of two consonants, but it 
has the effect of two in lengthening a preceding vowel (§ 19, 2). 

§ 6. By another classification, the consonants are divided into 
semivowels and mutes. 

1. The semivowels are X, p, v, p, and o-; of which the first 
four are called liquids, and o- is called a sibilant. M and j/ are 
also called nasals ; to which must be added y before k, y, x, or 
£, where it has the sound of v, as in ayKvpa (ancora), anchor. 

2. The mutes are of three orders : — 

smooth mutes, ?r, k, r, 
middle mutes, /3, y, 8, 
rough mutes, <£, x> #• 

These again correspond in the following classes : — 

labial mutes, n, /3, <£, 
palatal mutes, k, y, %, 
lingual mutes, r, d, 0. 

Note. Mutes of the same order are called co-ordinate ; those of 
the same class are called cognate. The smooth and rough mutes, with 
cr, £, and -*//•, are called surd (hushed sounds); the other consonants 
and the vowels are called sonant. 

§ 7. The only consonants which can stand at the end of a 
Greek word are v, p, and s. 

S and yfr (kct and it a)- are no exceptions ; and *k and ovk (olx) 
are varied forms of e£ and ou. 






LETTEES, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§ 8. 



COLLISION OF YOWELS. HIATUS. 

§ 8. A succession of two vowel sounds, not forming a diph- 
thong, was generally displeasing to the Athenians. In the 
middle of a word this was avoided by contraction (§9). Be- 
tween two words — where it is called hiatus and was especially 
offensive — it was avoided by crasis (§ 11), by elision (§ 12), or 
by adding a movable consonant (§ 13) to the former word. 




CONTKACTION OF TOWELS. 

§ 9, Two successive vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, are 
often united by contraction in a single long vowel or a diph- 
thong ; as <fii\eco, (piKco \ (£/ Aee, (filXei j rt/xae, rlfxa. 

Contraction takes place especially in Attic Greek, but seldom 
unless the first vowel is open (§2, Note). It follows these gen- 
eral rules : — 

1. Two vowels which can form a diphthong simply unite in 
one syllable \ as Tei^et, Tercet \ yepa't, ye pa ) pd'io-ros, pacrros. 

2. If one of the vowels is o or a>, they are contracted into ©. 
But eo, oo, and oe give ov. Thus drjXorjTe, drjk&Te ) (pfXecoat, <fiik<oo"i ) 
Tifidofiev, TLfMcofxcv ) TifidcofjLev, Tip.cc>iJL€P j &7X0G), ^AcS j — but yeveos, 
yevovs ) 7r\6os, nXovs j v6e, vov, 

Note. In contracts of the first and second declensions, o is dropped 
before a, and before any long vowel or a diphthong. (See § 43 and 
§ 65.) 

3. If the two vowels are a and € (or 77), the first vowel sound 
prevails, and we have d or 77. Aa gives a, and er; or r?e gives 77 ; 
but ce gives ei. Thus, cripae, eri/xa ; Tipdrjre, rifiare ', re^ea, reixn', 
pLvda, jJLva \ (j)i.\er)Te, (f)i\rJT€ \ tl}jlt)€vtos, TifirjUTos \ ec^tAee, icfriXei. 

Note. In the first and second declensions, ca becomes a in the dual 
and plural and after a vowel or p ; also in the third declension after 
a vowel. In the dual of the third declension ee becomes 77. (§ 43, 
§ 65, § 52, 2, N. 2, § 53, 3, N. 3. See also § 51, 2.) 

4. If a simple vowel is followed by a diphthong, it is con- 
tracted with the first voivel of the diphthong, and the second 
vowel is dropped unless it can be retained as iota subscript (§ 3). 
But a, €, and o are dropped before at ; and e and o before 01. 



§11.] CRASIS AND ELISION. 5 

Thus, rt/xdft, Tifia j ripdrj, ripa \ Tipdot, ripco ; ripdov, rtpw ; (£iAeei, 
(piXel ) (piXey. (piXrj ) Xvrjai, Xvy ', pcpvrjOLO, pcpvcoo * TrXaKoeLS, ttAcikovs ', 
dr]X6ov, drjXov \ — but pvdai, \ivai ) (fiiXtoi, <f>iXol ', hrjkooi, brjXoi. 

Note. In verbs in oa>, except in the infinitive, oei and 077 give 01; 
as brjKocis, brjXols ; 6^7X077, S77X01 ; — but drjXociv, drjXodv (regularly). 
Infinitives in -dew drop 1 in contraction ; as Tipdav, npav. 

In the second person singular of the passive and middle, ecu gives 
€i as well as 77; as \vcai, Xuq, or Xvei. (See §114, 2.) 

5. The close vowels (1 and v) are contracted with a following 
vowel in some forms of nouns in 1 5 and vs of the third declension. 
(See § 52.) 

§ 10. Two successive vowels, not forming a diphthong, are 
sometimes united in pronunciation. This is called synizesis. 
Thus, 6eol may make one syllable in poetry • arrjBea or xP V(re V 
may make two. 

CRASIS AND ELISION. 

§ 11. 1. A vowel or diphthong at the end of a word is often 
contracted with one at the beginning of the following word. 
This is called crasis (Kpacris, mixture). The first of the two 
words is generally an article, a relative pronoun, or ml. 

Crasis generally follows the laws of contraction (§ 9), but 
with these modifications : — 

(a.) A diphthong at the end of the first word drops its last 
vowel before crasis takes place. 

(6.) The article drops its final vowel or diphthong in crasis 
before a. The particle roi drops ol before a; and kclL drops at 
before av, eu, ov, and the words d, els, ol, al. 

2. The following are examples of crasis : — 

To ovopa, rovvofia] ra dyaBd, TayaBd) to evavriov, rovvavrlov] 6 eV 

OVK ; 6 €7TL. 0V7TL | O. OV, O.V ' KOI OV, KO.V \ KCU 6tra, KOLTa ] — 6 dvijp. avrjp ] 

ol d$eX(f)oL adeX(j)oL ; tco dvdpi, rdvbpl j to avro, tclvto ; tov avrov. rav- 
tov ; — rot av, rciv (pevToi av, pevrav) ; rot apa, rapa : — Ka\ avros. Kavros ; 

Ka\ avTTj. x a ^ Tr J (§ l^j 1) 5 Kai € i<, K€ l] KaL °h X *-'- KaL at ' X at - ^° *J<° 
oida, cySda j u> avdpcoire, covBp&Tre ; rfj eirapfj, Tr)7rapr) j npoexcdv, npovxeov. 

SO 7T0V €CTTLV, 7T0V 0~TLV. 

Note 1. The rough breathing of the article or relative is retained 
on the contracted syllable, taking the place of the usual coronis ('). 



6 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. {§ 12. 

Note 2. In crasis, Zrcpos takes the form arepos, — whence Sarcpov, 
Oarepcp, &c. 

Note 3. Crasis may be left to pronunciation (§ 10). Thus, p.r) ov 
makes £>ne syllable in poetry ; so p,r) eldevai, eWt ov. 

§ 12. A short final vowel may be dropped when the next 
word begins with a vowel. This is called elision. An apostrophe 
(') marks the omission. E. g. 

At' ejjiov for Bia ipiov ; dvr eneivrjs for dvri €K€ivrjs] \iyoijx av for Xe- 
yoifii av ; dXX' evOvs for dXka evOvs ; eV dv6panr<j> for eVt dvOpcbna. So 
€(/>' ire pep', i/y^tf' 0X771/ for wKra 0X771/ (§ 17, 1 ; 16, 1). 

Note 1. The poets sometimes elide at in the verbal endings /zat, 
o-at, rat, and o-#at. So ot in ot/xot, and rarely in p.01. 

Note 2. The prepositions 7rept and npo, the conjunction ort, and 
datives in t of the third declension, are not elided in Attic Greek. 
The form or stands for ore, when. 

Note 3. The poets sometimes cut off a short vowel even before a 
consonant. Thus in Homer we find ap, av, kut, and nap, for apa, dvd, 
Kara, and napd. Kar assimilates its r to a following consonant, and 
drops it before two consonants ; as Ka/3/3aXe and mKrave for Kare^aXe 
and KaT€KTave', — but KarBaveiv for KaraOavelv (§ 15, 1). 



MOVABLE CONSONANTS. 

§ 13. 1. All words ending in ort, and all verbs of the third 
person ending in *, add v when the next word begins with a 
vowel. This is called v movable. E. g. 

Ilao-t BlBcoo-l ravra ; but Trdvw edcoKev €K€iva. So didcocrL /xot ; but 
6\'Sg)0-«/ e/xot. 

Note 1. 'Eori takes v movable, like third persons in crt. Nv 
(enclitic) and k4 (Epic for av) add v before a vowel. 

Note 2. N movable is generally added at the end of a sentence or 
of a line of poetry. It may be added even before a consonant in 
poetry, to make position (§ 19, 2). 

2. o£/ra>r, i£ (e*?), and some other words, drop s- before a con- 
sonant ; aS OVTQ) BoK€L, €K 7ToXf (OS ', bllt OVTCDS ^X € h *£ OOTeOff. 

Ov, not, becomes ovk before a smooth vowel, and ol% before a 
rough vowel. Mr) inserts k in firj^Ti (like ovK-en). 



§ 16.] EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. 



METATHESIS AND SYNCOPE. 

§ 14. 1. Metathesis is the transposition of two letters in a 
word ; as in Kpdros and Kdpros, strength ; Bdpo-os and 6pdaos, 
courage. 

2. Syncope is the omission of a vowel from the middle of a 
word; as in irarepos, irarpos. (See § 57.) 

EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS. 

§ 15. 1. A rough consonant (§ 6, 2) is never doubled; but 
7r0, kx, and t6 are always written for cfxfi, xx> an( ^ ^- Thus 

2a7T<jf)a>, Ba^oy, Kardavelv, not 2a(£(£a>, Ba^^os, KaOOavetu (§ 12^ N. 3). 
So in Latin, Sappho, Bacchus. 

2. Initial p is doubled when a vowel precedes it in forming 
a compound word. After a diphthong it is unchanged. Thus, 
dvappiTTTco (of dvd and pL7TTco), but evpoos (of eu and poos). So after 
the syllabic augment ; as eppurrov (imperfect of purr®). 

§ 16. The following rules apply chiefly to euphonic changes 
made in the final consonant of a stem in adding the endings, 
especially in forming and inflecting the tenses of verbs : — 

1. Before a lingual mute (r, 8, 6), a labial or palatal mute 
must be of the same order (§6, Note), and another lingual 
mute must be changed to <r. E. g. 

TeTpurrat, (for rerpt/3-Tai), SedcKTciL (for SeSe^-Tat), Trk^xOrjvat (for 
TiktK-B-qvai), i\€i(j)6r)v (for eXeur-Orjv), ypdfibrjv (for ypa<fi-drjv). IleVeiaTai 
(7re7r«#-rai), lTteiu6r\v (JttciO-Otjv), yo-Tcu (yd-TCii), lore (Id-re). 

Note. No combinations of different mutes, except those here in- 
cluded and those mentioned in § 15, 1, are allowed in Greek. When 
any such arise, the first mute is dropped; as in TreVetAca (for 7T€7T€iO-Ka) . 

2. No mute can stand before a- except n and k (in \j/ and £). 
Here /3 and cj> become n ; y and x become k ; the other mutes 
are dropped. E. g. 

Tpiyjrco (for Tpt/3-o-co), ypdy\rcD (for ypa(j)-crct}), Xe'£a) (for Xcy-aco), 7T€lct(o 
(for 7T€l6-o-co), aVa) (for aS-cra)), crd^iacri (for cra)/xar-o-t), cX^-tVi (for 
eX7ri§ crt). So (piXeyfr (for <£Xe/3-y), cXa-is (for eX^tS-?), w£ (for j/v/cr-y). 
See examples under § 46, 2. 

3. Before /x, a labial mute (tt, j3, <£) becomes /*; a palatal 



8 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§ 17. 

mute (k, x) becomes y ; and a lingual mute (t, 5. 6) becomes or. 
E. g. 

AeXet/x/xat (for XeXei7r-fiai), Terpififxai (for rer/3t/3-/iat), ycypafifiai (for 
yeypa<fi-p.ai), 7reVXeyjuat (for 7re7rXeK-/xat), rerevyfiai (for rereu^-ftat), 
go-fiat, (for fjd-fjiai), 7re7T6t<r-/Liat (for 7re7ret#-/xcu). 

4. In passive and middle endings, o- is dropped between two 
consonants. E. g. 

AeXei<£#e (for XeXei7T-cr#e, § 16, 1), yeypatyd* (for yeypa<£-o"0e), 
yepyd(pdai (for yeypa(£-cr#ai), 7T€(pdvdai (for 7re<pav-o~6ai). 

Note. In the verbal endings crat and cro, <r is often dropped after a 
vowel; as in Xveo-cu, Xveat, Xuy, or Xvei (§ 9, 4, Note). Stems in co- 
of the third declension also drop <r before a vowel or another o\ (See 
§ 52, 1, Note.) 

5. Before a labial mute (ir, /3, <£), 1/ becomes /u ; before a pal- 
atal mute (*, y, x) it becomes y (§ 6, 1). 

Before another liquid, v is changed to that liquid ; before <r, 
it is generally dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened 
(e to ei, o to ov). E. g. 

^EfmiTTTO) (for ei/-7ri7iTG>), o-vpfiaivco (for o r t/i/-/3a«/o)), €fjL<fiavr)s (for 
cv-cpavns). 2uy^eco (for (rw-^ea)), o-uyyci/r;? (for (ruy-yei^s). 'EXXetTrco 
(for £i>-Xei7ra>), cpfxhco (for eV-/uo>a)), crvppioa (for aw-peco). MeXds (for 
fxeXav-s), ds (for ev-y) Xi/oucri (for Xvo-vo-t, § 112, Note). 

Note 1. The combinations i/r, vS, i>0, are often dropped together 
before <r (§ 16, 2 and 5), and the preceding vowel is lengthened, as 
above (§ 16, 5) ; as iracri (for 7ravT-<ri), Xeoucrt (for Xeoi/r-<rt), Ti6(1ai 
(dat. plur. for TiOevT-cri), tlScls (for TiOevr-s), dovs (for Sojt-s), <nreicra> 
(for o"7r€i/S-o-ct)). 

Note 2. Before <ri of the dative plural, v alone is dropped without 
lengthening the vowel; as Saipiocri (for daifiov-cri). Compare nan 
(for TravT-o-i), Note 1. 

So vt in adjectives in ety, but never in participles^ as ^apiWi (for 
XapicvT-ai) ; but TiQeiin., as given above. 

Note 3. The preposition «V is not changed before tr, p, or f. 2uV 
becomes trvo-- before a and a rowe^ but av- before a and a conso- 
nant or before f. Thus, €vpa7rr<o, owo-tro?, avfryos. 

For v retained before cr or changed to <r before ft, in the perfect 
passive and middle of verbs in j/a>, see § 113, N. 2. 

§ 17, I- A smooth mute standing before a rough vowel 



§ 18.] DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. 9 

(either by elision or in forming a compound word) is itself made 
rough. E. g. 

*A(f)irjp.L (for dTT-lrjfjLi), KaBaipeco (for KaT-alp€<o) y d(j> lav (for dnb aw), 
vux& oXtjv (for vvktcl 0X771/, § 12, § 16, 1). 

So in crasis, where the rough breathing may even affect a conso- 
nant not immediately preceding it. (See § 11, 2.) 

Note. The Ionic dialect does not observe this principle ; but uses, 
for example, air ov ) dmrifii. 

2. In reduplications (§ 101), an initial rough mute is always 

made smooth. E. g. 

Ui(\)VKa (for (frccfrvKa), perfect of (frvco) Kixv va (f° r X e X 7 7 I/a ) P er ^ °f 
Xao-Kco ; reOrfXa (for BeSr^Xa), perf. of BdXXco. 

Note. A similar change takes place in some other words ; as in 
rp€(f)(o (for 6p€(p(o), rpe^co (for Opex®), rpixos (for 6pix~os) from 0/n£; 
ird(j)7ju (for i6a<fr-r]v) from Bdwroa] raxys (for Baxvs). So in irvBrjv 
(for idv6r)v) from 0ug), and ireOrjv (for iticOrjv) from riQrjfii. 

3. The ending & of the aorist imperative passive becomes rt 
after 6rj- 9 the regular characteristic of that tense (§ 110, 3); as 
XvBrjTt (for XvOrj-Bt). 

SYLLABLES. 

§ 18. 1. A Greek word has as many syllables as it has 
separate vowels or diphthongs. The syllable next to the 
last is called the penult (pen-ultima, almost last) ; the one 
before the penult is called the antepenult. 

2. A pare syllable is one whose vowel or diphthong 
immediately follows another vowel or diphthong; as the 
last syllable of <^t\/o), olfcca, %pvcreo<;. 

Note. In most editions of the Greek authors, the following rules 
are observed in dividing syllables at the end of a line : — 

1. Single consonants, combinations of consonants which can begin 
a word (which can be seen from the Lexicon), and mutes followed by 
p. or v, are placed at the beginning of a syllable. Other combinations 
of consonants are divided. Thus, €~xco. 6-ya>, i-cnri-pa, ve-icrxip, d-K/irj, 
Se-oyxos, pi-Kpov, npa-yfia-Tos, 7rpdcr-<r<t). iX-ms, iv-bov. 

2. Compound words are divided into their original parts; but 
when elision has taken place, they are divided like simple words. 
Thus, 7rpoa-a-y&>, but 7rtx-pa-yo>. 



10 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [| 19. 

QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 

§ 19. 1. A syllable is long by nature when it has a 
long vowel or a diphthong ; as in ri/jurj, Krelvco. 

2. A syllable is long by position when its vowel is fol- 
lowed by two consonants or a double consonant ; as in 
bprv%. 

3. When a vowel short by nature is followed by a mute 
and a liquid, the syllable is common (i. e. either long or 
short) ; as in tIkvov, vttvos, vfipis. But in Attic poetry 
such a syllable is generally short, in other poetry it is 
generally long. 

!Note. A middle mute (/3, y, S) before X, fi } or i>, lengthens the 
preceding vowel, as in ayi/o>?, fiiftXiov, So'y/ia. 

§ 20. The quantity of most syllables can be seen at once. 
Thus r] and © and all diphthongs are long by nature ; e and o 
are short by nature. (See § 2.) 

When a, i, and v are not long by position, their quantity must 
generally be learned by observation. But it is to be remem- 
bered that 

1. Every vowel arising from contraction or crasis (not from 
elision) is long ; as a in cLkcdv for aU<ov. 

2. The endings as and vs are long when v or vt has been 
dropped before o- (§ 16, 5, and N. 1). 

3. The accent often shows the quantity of a vowel. (See 
§ 21, Ij § 22.) 

The quantity of the terminations of nouns and verbs will be stated 
below in the proper places. 

ACCENT. 
General Principles. 

§ 21. 1. There are three accents, the acute ('), the grave 
( v ), and the circumflex (" ). The acute can stand only on 
one of the last three syllables of a word, the circumflex 
only on one of the last two, and the grave only on the 
last The circumflex can stand only on a syllable long 
by nature. 



§ 23/] ACCENT. 11 

Note 1. The grave accent is rarely used except in place of the 
acute in the case mentioned in § 23, 1. 

• Note 2. The accent (like the breathing) stands on the second 
vowel of a diphthong. (See § 4, 1, Note.) 

2. A word is called oxytone when it has the acute on the last 
syllable ; paroxytone, when it has the acute on the penult ; pro- 
paroxytone, when it has the acute on the antepenult. 

A word is called perispomenon when it has the circumflex on 
the last syllable; properispomenon, when it has the circumflex 
on the penult. 

A word is called barytone when its last syllable has no accent. 

§ 22. 1. The antepenult cannot be accented if the last 
syllable is long (either by nature or by position). If ac- 
cented, it takes the acute ; as TreXetcvs, av6pomo<;. 

2. The penult, if accented, takes the circumflex if it is 
long by nature and at the same time the last syllable is 
short by nature; as firjXov, vrjcros, rjXt^ Otherwise, if 
accented, it takes the acute. 

Note 1. Final at and ol are considered short in determining the 
accent ; as civOpayrroi, vrjooc. Except in the optative mood, and in the 
adverb oikoi, at home ; as Ttpicrat, Troifjaroi (not rt^o-at or ttoIt^ctol). 

Note 2. Genitives in ecos from nouns in is or vs of the third de- 
clension, nouns in cos and cov of the second, and the Ionic genitive in 
€<o of the first, allow the acute on the antepenult ; as aixoyeeaz/, TroXea)?, 
Trjpeco (from Trjprj?). 

For apparent exceptions like wo-rrep, otde, &c, see § 28, Note 3. 

§ 23. 1. An oxytone changes its acute to the grave 
before other words in the same sentence ; as tovs 7rovrjpov<; 
avQpwirovs (for rot;? irovripovs dvdp(D7rovs\ 

Note. This change is not made before enclitics (§ 28) nor in the 
interrogative t&, tL (§ 84). It is generally made before a comma, 
but not before a colon. 

2. When a dissyllabic preposition follows its case, or a verb 
to which it belongs, it throws its accent back to the penult ; as 
7outcov nepL, oXeo-as ana (Homeric). This is called anastrophe. 

So also when a preposition stands for itself compounded with. 
iariv : as napa for irapetTTiv. 



12 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§ 24. 

Accent of Contracted Syllables. 

§ 24. 1. A contracted syllable is accented if either of the 
original syllables had an accent. If it is a penult or antepenult, 
the accent is regular (§22). If it is a final syllable, it is cir- 
cumflexed ; but if the original word had the acute on the last 
syllable, this is retained. E. g. 

Tipvpevos from npaofxevoSj (^iXeire from (^iXc'ere, ti/ao) from ri/zaa>; 
but /3e/3a>s from /3e/3aa>s. 

Note. If neither of the original syllables had an accent, the accent 
is not affected by contraction : as rlp.a for rljiae. 

Some exceptions to the rule of § 24, 1, will be noticed under the 
declensions. (See § 43, Note ; § 65.) 

2. In crasis, the accent of the first word is lost and that of 
the second remains ; as rayaOd for ra ayaBd, iya>8a for iycD otda, 
Kara for kol clra. 



3. In elision, oxytone prepositions and conjunctions lose 
their accent with the elided vowel; other oxytones throw the 
accent back to the penult. E. g. 

'En-' avT<a for cVi ai)ra>, dXX' clttcv for aXka ciwev, (f)qp iya for (prjfjLi 
eya>, kok em] for kclkci €tttj. 

Accent of Nouns, 

§ 25. 1. The place of the accent in the nominative singular 
must generally be learned by observation. In the other cases, 
the accent remains on the same syllable as in the nominative, if 
the last syllable permits (§ 22) ; otherwise it is placed on the 
following syllable. E. g. 

Qakacrcra. #0X00-0-779, Oakacrcrav, 6d\a<r(rai, SaXdacrais ; Kopa£, Kopaicos, 
KopaKcs, KopcLKoav) 7rpay/xa, npayparos, npaypdrcov ) odovs, odovTOS, ubovTWy 

6doi)<TLV. 

The kind of accent is determined avS usual (§ 22) ; as vrjaos, wjaov, 
vrjaou, vrjcroi, vrjaois. 

2. The last syllable of the genitive and dative of oxytones of 
the first and second declensions is circumflexed. £lv of the 
genitive plural is regularly circumflexed in all nouns of the 
first declension (even in barytones), but not in adjectives or 
participles in oy. E. g. 



§ 26. J ACCENT OF VERBS. 13 

Tt/iT/9, rip.fi, ripaiv, ripwv, npais ; &€ov, #ea>, Bcoiv, Bcwv, Beols ; also 
Slkwv, doguv (from dUrj, do£a), but d£ton/, Xcyopevvv (fern. gen. plur. of 
a£ios, Xeyo'/uei/os). See § 36, Note. 

Note. Genitives in g> of the second declension (§ 42) are ex- 
ceptions. 

3. Most monosyllables of the third declension accent the last 
syllable in the genitive and dative of all numbers ; and cov and 
oii> are circumflexed. E. g. 

Qtjs, servant, drjros, Otjtl, 6tjtolv, dnrcov, 6rj(ri. 

Note. Ileus, child, Tpa>s, Trojan, and a few others, violate the last 
rule in the genitive dual and plural ; so iras, all, in both genitive and 
dative plural; as nois, iraibos, iratdi, nauri, but 7raidcov', nets, 7rairr6s, 
navTif ndvTcov, naai. 

The interrogative rls, tlvos, tlvl, &c. always accents the first syllable. 
So do all monosyllabic participles ; as a>v, ovros, ovti, oi/tcov, ovai. 

Some further exceptions occur in irregular nouns, and others will 
be noticed under the different declensions. 



Accent of Verbs. 

§ 26. Verbs throw the accent as far back as the last sylla- 
ble permits J as jSovXevo), flovXevopev, jSovXcvovcrw ; 7rapc)(<d, nape^e, 
a7root0a>/it, airoOOTC. 

Note 1. This applies to compound as well as simple verbs; but 
in compound verbs the accent cannot precede the augment. Thus, 
Trapelxpv (not irdpuxov). So when the verb begins with a long vowel 
or diphthong not augmented; as c&vpov (not egevpov). 

Note 2. Participles in their inflection are accented as nouns, not 
as verbs. Thus, fiovXtvcov has in the neuter fiovXcvov (not fiovXevov) ; 
(piXeayv, (j)iX<tiv, has (friXeov (not cfriXcov), <f>iXovv. 

Note 3. The chief exceptions to the principle just stated (§26) 
are these *. — 

(1.) The following forms accent the penult: the first aorist active 
infiuitive, the second aorist middle infinitive, the perfect passive infini- 
tive and participle, and all infinitives in vai or pev (except those in 
pevai). Thus, ftovXevo-at, ycveoOai, XcXvaQai, XeXvpevos, lardvai, didovai, 
XeXvKevcu, 86fjL€v and dopcvai (both Epic for dovvai). 

Add the compounds of 86s, 2s, Bis, and cr^es- ; as dirobos- 

(2.) The following forms have the acute on the last syllable : the 



14 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§27. 

second aorist active participle, participles in eis, ovs y vs, and as, and 
those in as from verbs in pi. Thus, Xmjw, \v6eis, didovs, deucvvs, 
XeXvKcos, lorrds (but Xvcras). 

Add the imperatives I8e, cine, eX6e, evpi, and Xa/3e. 

(3.) The following circumflex the last syllable : the second aorist 
active infinitive, and the second person singular of the second aorist 
middle imperative (except when the latter is compounded with a 
dissyllabic preposition). Thus, Xnrelv, X1770O, 7rpobov, d(f>ov (but Kara- 
6ov). 

Note 4. Some other exceptions occur, especially in irregular verbs 
(like elfil and (frrjpL). Some will be noticed hereafter under verbs in pi. 

Enclitics. 

§ 27. An enclitic is a word which loses its own accent, and 
is pronounced as if it were part of the preceding word; as 
avtipomoi re (like hominesque in Latin). The enclitics are 

1. The personal pronouns po£>, pot, pe; crov, vol, ae ; ol, ol, e, 
(T<pi(ri (with <r(f>i and cr<£e). 

2. The indefinite pronoun rh. ri, in all its forms ; also the 
indefinite adverbs ttov, ttoBI, ny, ttol, iroBev, ttotI, ttcj, 7ra>?. (These 
must be distinguished from the interrogatives tls, irov t 7177, &c 

3. The present indicative of eyd, to be, and of (firjfii, to say, 
except the forms ei and <£#'?. 

4. The particles ye, re, toi, 7re'p, i/i5i/ (not i/O?) ; and the Epic 
Ke (or k€p), 6rju, and pa. Also the inseparable -de in 6Se, rovo-Se, 
&c. (not Se, 6?^) \ and -0e and -^i m € ^ € an d WX*- 

§ 28. The word before an enclitic retains its own accent, 
and never changes a final acute to the grave (§ 23, 1). 

1. If its last syllable is accented, the accent of the enclitic is 
merely dropped ', as Tip.al re, Tip&v re, o~o(f)6s tis, KaXws (f>J]criv. 

2. If its last syllable is unaccented and it has not the acute 
on the penult, it receives from the enclitic an acute on the last 
syllable as an additional accent, while the enclitic loses its ac- 
cent ) as avOpomos tis, $el£6v pot, 7rai8es Tives, ovtos ecrTiv, el tis. 

3. If it has the acute on the penult, it receives no second 
accent. A monosyllabic enclitic here drops its accent ; a dis- 
syllabic enclitic retains it. Thus, tovtov ye, noaos tis, avhpes rives 
(but Katies rives^- ovrw (prjaiv (but ovtos <f)t}aw). 



§30.] DIALECTIC CHANGES IN LETTERS. 15 

Note 1. Enclitics retain their accent, — (1) when they begin a 
sentence, (2) when the preceding syllable is elided, (3) when they 
are emphatic. The personal pronouns generally retain their accent 
after prepositions (except in npos /xe). 'Eort at the beginning of a 
sentence, and when it signifies existence or possibility, becomes eort; 
so after ov, fir), cl, as, /cat, dXX' (for aXXa), and tovt (for roOro). 

Note 2, When several enclitics occur in succession, each takes an 
acute from the following, the last remaining without accent; as et 

TLS TL (TOL cf)r}(TLV. 

Note 3. When an enclitic forms the last part of a compound word, 
the compound is accented as if the enclitic were a separate word. 
Thus, ovtlvos, cpTivi, hvrivav, cbcmep, coore, olbe, rovo-de, are only ap- 
parent exceptions to § 22. 

Proclitics. 

§ 29. A proclitic is a word which has no accent, and is pro- 
nounced as if it were part of the following word. The proclitics 
are the articles 6, f), of, al, and the particles el, wy, ov (ouk, ol-^), 
els (is), e| (*k), iv (elv). 

Note. Ov takes the acute at the end of a sentence ; as ttcos yap ov ; 
for why not? *Qs and e£ take the acute when (in poetry) they follow 
their noun; as kcikcov £'f, from evils; Oebs as, as a God. f Qs is ac- 
cented also when it means thus ; as as elrrev, thus he spoke. When 6 
is used for the relative 6s, it is accented ; and many editors accent all 
articles when they are demonstrative (as in H. I. 9). 

DIALECTIC CHANGES IN LETTERS. 

§ 30. 1. The Ionic dialect is marked by the use of rj where 
the Attic has 5 ; and the Doric by the use of a where the Attic 

has 77. Thus, Ionic yeverj for yeved, Irjcrofiai for Ido-opai (from 
Idopai, § 106) ; Doric Tifxaaco for Tifirjaco (from Tipdco). But an 
Attic a caused by contraction (as in rlfia from W/xae), or an Attic 
77 lengthened from e (as in 4>i\rjcrcD from (/nXeo>, § 106), is never 
thus changed. 

2. The Ionic often has et, ov, for Attic e, o ; and ji for Attic 
ei in nouns and adjectives in eios, eiov ; as gelvos for £evos, Pao-Lkrj'ios 
for fiacri\€ios. 

3. The Ionic does not avoid successive vowels, like the Attic ; 
and it therefore very often omits contraction (§ 9). It con- 



16 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§31. 

tracts eo and eov into ev (especially in Herodotus) \ as noievficv, 
7roi€V(ri (from 7roieojLiei/, 7roieoucri), for Attic ttoiov^v, 7roiov<Ti. He- 
rodotus does not use v movable (§ 13, 1). See also § 17, 1, Note. 

PUNCTUATION-MARKS. 

§ 31. The Greek uses the comma (,) and the period (.) like 
the English. It has also a colon, a point above the line (•), 
which is equivalent to the English colon and semicolon. Its 
mark of interrogation ( ,- ) is the same as the English semicolon. 
The mark of exclamation ( ! ) is sometimes used. Other marks 
are the same as in English. 



PART II. 



INFLECTION. 

§ 32. 1. Inflection is a change in the form of a word, 
made to express its relation to other words. It includes 
the declension of nouns and pronouns, the conjugation of 
verbs, and the comparison of adjectives and adverbs. 

2. Every inflected word has a fundamental part, which 
is called the stem. To this are appended various syllables, 
called endings, to form cases, tenses, persons, numbers, &c. 

Kote. Most words contain a still more primitive element than the 
stem, which is called the root. Thus, the stem of ti/jlolco is tijuux-, that of 
rive*) is TLv-y that of tlctis is Tto-i-, that of Tifjaos is tlixlo-, that of ri^jxa 
{ti!xt]}xcltos) is TL}X7]<xaT- ; but all these stems are developed from one root, 
Tt-, which is seen pure in the verb rtw, to honor. In riw, therefore, the 
stem and the root are the same. 

The stem itself may be modified and assume various forms in different 
parts of a noun or verb. Thus, the same verbal stem may in different 
tenses appear as \itt-, \enr-, and \onr- ; and the same nominal stem may 
appear as rtfia- and Tifxr)- ; but these changes are entirely distinct from 
those produced by inflection. The stem, therefore, may be defined as the 
part which is not changed by inflection. 

§33. 1. There are three members; the singular, the 
dual, and the plural. The singular denotes one object, the 
plural more than one. The dual is sometimes used to de- 
note two objects, but even here the plural is more common. 

2. There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, 
and the neuter. 

Note 1. The grammatical gender in Greek is generally different 
from the natural gender, especially in names of things. A Greek 
noun is called masculine, feminine, or neuter, when it requires an ad- 
jective or article to take the form adapted to either of these genders. 
The gender is often indicated by prefixing the article ; as (6) dvfjp } 
man; (fj) yvvf), woman; (to) irpayiia, thing. (See § 78.) 



18 INFLECTION. [§ 34. 

Note 2. Nouns which may be either masculine or feminine are 
said to be of the common gender; as (6, q) Qeos, God or Goddess. 
Names of animals which include both sexes, but have but one gram- 
matical gender, are called epicene (iniKotvos) ; as 6 deros, the eagle; 
r) a\omr]g, the fox. 

Note 3. The gender must often be learned by observation. But 
names of males are generally masculine, and names of females femi- 
nine. Further, most names of rivers, winds, and months are masculine ; 
and most names of countries, towns, trees, and islands are feminine. 
Other rules, are given under the declensions. 

3. There are five cases ; the nominative, genitive, dative, 
accusative, and vocative. 

The nominative and vocative plural are always alike. 
In neuters, the nominative, accusative, and vocative are 
alike in all numbers ; and in the plural these cases end in a. 
The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual are always 
alike ; and the genitive and dative dual are always alike. 

Note 1. The cases have in general the same meaning as the cor- 
responding cases in Latin ; as Nom. a man (as subject), G-en. of a 
man, Dat. to or for a man, Accus. a man (as object), Yoc. yuan. The 
chief functions of the Latin ablative are divided between the Greek 
genitive and dative. 

Note 2. All the cases except the nominative and vocative are 
called oblique cases. 

NOUNS. 

§ 34. There are three declensions of nouns, in which 
also all adjectives are included. 

Note. The name noun (Suo/ia), according to ancient usage, includes both 
substantives and adjectives. But by modern custom noun is often used as 
synonymous with substantive, and it is so used in the x>resent work. 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

§ 35. Stems of the first declension end originally in a, 
which is often modified into rj in the singular. The nomi- 
native singular of feminines ends in a or r) ; that of mas- 
culines ends in a? or 779. 



^ 37.] 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



19 



§ 36. The following table shows the terminations in all the 
cases of this declension. These consist of the final a or rj of the 
stem united with the case-endings (§32, 2). 





Singular. 


Dual. 




Plural. 




Feminine. Masculine. 


Masc. & Fern. 




Masc. <t- Fein. 


% 


a rj as rjs 




N. 


at 


G. 


as or rjs rjs ov 


N.A.V. a 


G. 


&V (d(dV) 


D. 


« or rj 7) a rj 


G. D. aiv 


D. 


ais 


A. 


av rjv av rjv 




A. 


as 


Y. 


a rj a a or rj 




V. 


at 



Note. Here, as in most cases, the relation of the stem to the termina- 
tions cannot be perfectly understood without reference to the earlier forms 
of the language. Thus, Qj/ of the genitive plural is contracted from the 
Homeric auv (§ 39) ; and ov of the genitive singular comes from the Ho- 
meric ao (through a form eo) by contraction. The forms in a and 77 have 
no case-endings. 

§ 37. 1. The nouns (??) rtfjuri, honor, (rj) Movaa, Muse, 
(^) oL/cia, house, (0) ttoXltt]?, citizen, (6) Tafias, steward, 
are thus declined : — 



Singular. 



N. 


Tlflf) 


Movcra 


OLKia 


TrdkiTTjs 


rap las 


G. 


Tlfirjs 


Movcttjs 


olKtas 


ttoXltov 


TafXLOV 


D. 


Tlfxrj 


Mover jj 


oIklo. 


ttoKlttj 


rap la. 


A. 


TlfJLTjV 


Movcrav 


olKiav 


7To\lT7JV 


ra\xlav 


V. 


TIJXt) 


Movaa 


olnia 
Dual. 


TToXlra 


rafxla 


N.A.V. 


rtfia 


Mov<ra 


oiKia 


TTokira. 


rapta 


G. D. 


Tijialv 


Movvaiv 


oltclaiv 
Plural. 


TToklraiv 


rafiiaiv 


N. 


Tifxal 


Movo-ai 


oiKiai 


TroAtrai 


rafitat, 


G. 


TIJJL&V 


Mover Ssv 


oIklcou 


tto\ltCl>v 


rauioav 


D. 


Tifiais 


Movaais 


oiKiais 


7ro\iTais 


rapid is 


A. 


TLfJLaS 


Movoras 


oiKtas 


7roAira9 


rap 1 as 


V. 


rifiai 


Movaai 


oikuh 


7roXTrat 


ra/xiai 



20 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 38. 



2. Nouns ending in a pure (§ 18, 2), pa, and a few others, 
are declined like olrcia. Other nouns in a are declined like 
Mover a ; as Oakaaaa, OaXacrcrr)?, OaXacrcrr), 0a\acr<rav, &C. 

(See § 25, 1.) 

Note 1. The nouns m rjs which have a in the vocative singular 
(like ttoXlttjs) are chiefly those in rrjs, national appellations (like 
IIepo-779, a Persian, voc. Ilepcra), and compound . verbals in rjs (like 
yecoixerprjs, a geometer , voc. yeco/xeVpa). Most other nouns in 77? have 
the vocative in 77. 

Note 2. The termination a of the nominative singular is always 
short when the genitive has tjs, and generally long when the genitive 
has as. Exceptions are generally seen by the accent (§ 22). 

Av of the accusative singular and a of the vocative singular agree 
in quantity with a of the nominative. The quantity of all other 
vowels may be seen from the table in § 36. 

Contract Nouns of the First Declension. 

§ 38. Most nouns in aa, ea, and ea? are contracted (§ 9). 
Mvda, fiva, mina, crv/cea, cry/cr}, fig-tree, and 'Ep/JLeas/Epfirj^ 
Hermes (Mercury), are thus declined : — 

Singular. 



N. 


fxvda 


fiva 


avKea 


crvKrj 


'Epfiias 


'Epfirjs 


G. 


fivdas 


fivas 


crvnias 


o-VKrjs 


*Epfl€OV 


'Epuov 


D. 


fivaa 


fiva 


tjVKeq 


CTVKfj 


'Epata 


'EpMi 


A. 


fivaav 


fivav 


avKeav 


o-vktjv 


'Epfiiav 


'Epp.fjv 


V. 


fivda 


fiva 


avKea 
Dual. 


crvKrf 


'Epfika 


'Epfiij 


N. A. V. 


fivaa 


fiva 


&VKea 


O-VKCL 


*Epfiea 


'Eppa 


G. D. 


fivdaiv 


fivaiv 


crvniaiv 

Plural. 


crvKalv 


'Epfieaiv 


'EpfiaTv 


N. 


fivaai 


fival 


a-VKeai 


avicai 


'Epfiiat 


'EpfiaT 


G. 


fiva&v 


fivoav 


(TVK€0)V 


CVK(OV 


'Epfiecov 


'Epucov 


D. 


fivaai? 


fivals 


avKeais 


avKals 


*Epp.€ais 


'Eppals 


A. 




fivaas 


fivas 


avKtas 


avKas 


'Epfieas 


'Epfias 


V. 


fivaai 


fiv:ii 


crvKeai 


avKal 


'Epfieai 


*Eppai 



§42.] 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



21 



For adjectives of this class, see § 65. For peculiar contraction in 
the dual and plural, see § 9, 3, Note, and § 9, 4. 



Dialects. 

§ 39. Ionic n, tjs 9 rj, rjv, in the singular, for d, as y a, av. Doric a, 
as, a, av, for rj, &c. in the same cases. (See § 30.) The Ionic gener- 
ally uses the uncontr acted forms. 

Norn. Sing, Horn, sometimes a for rjs ; as timora for iTnroTns, horse- 
man, (Compare Latin poeta = TroLrjrrjs.) 

Gen, Sing, For ov, Horn, do, eo> ; as 'Arpa'&zo, 'Arpei'Seco : Hdt. eco 
(sometimes in old Attic proper names) : Doric d (rarely in Attic). 

Gen, Plur. Horn, dcov, ecov (whence, by contraction, Attic cov, 
Doric av) : Hdt. ea>v. 

Dat, Plur. Poetic cucrt, Ionic 770-1, ns ; as Tifiaio-i, Movo-ycn or Movarjs 
(for Movo-ats*). 

SECOND DECLENSION". 

§ 40. The nominative singular of most nouns of the 
second declension ends in 09 or ov (gen. ov). Those in 
o? are masculine, rarely feminine ; those in ov are neuter. 

Note. The stem of nouns of this declension ends in o ; which is 
sometimes lengthened to o>, and becomes e in the vocative singular, 
and a in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of neuters. 

§ 41. The following table shows the terminations in this 
declension, that is, the final o of the stem (with its modifica- 
tions) united with the case-endings : — 



Singular. 


Dual. 




Plural. 




Masc. & Fern. Neuter. 


Masc, Fem., & Neuter. 


Masc. & Fem. 


Neu 


N. 09 


OV 




N. 


01 




a 


G. 


ov [00) 


N.iV, co 


Gl 




<DV 




D. 


6) 

1 


G. D. OLV 


D. 




OLS 




A. 


OV 




A. 


ovs 




a 


V. € 


ov 




V. 


01 




w 

a 



§ 42. 1. The nouns (6) \oyo$, word, (77) vrjcros, island, 
(o, 97) av6pa)7ro<;, man or human being, (to) Scopov, gift, are 
thus declined : — 



22 



N. 


\6yos 


G. 


\6yov 


D. 


Xoyco 


A. 


\6yov 


V. 


\6ys 


N. A. V. 


Xoyco 


G. D. 


\6yoLU 


N. 


\6yoL 


G. 


\6ycov 


D. 


Xoyou 


A. 


Xoyovs 


V. 


\6yoi 



INFLECTION. 

Singular, 
vrjcros 

VT](TOV 

vryrcp 

vrjcrov 

vrjcre 



Dual. 



V7](TCD 

vrjcroLV 



Plural. 



vrjcroi 

VTjCTOLS 
VT)(TOVS 
VTJ(TOL 



ClvSpCDTTOS 
avOpCOTTOV 

dvOpanrco 
audpconov 

av6pCD7T€ 



dv6pa>7r<D 
av6pu>7roiv 



avdpcDTroi 

dv6pW7Td)V 
CLvOpCOTTOlS 

dvdpamovs 

avOpCDTTOL 



[§42. 



dcopov 
daipov 
dapoa 
8&pov 
dcopou 

dcopco 
datpow 



ocopcov 
dwpois 
dcopa 
Scopa 



2. A few masculine and feminine nouns of this declen- 
sion end in co$ (gen. to), and a few neuters in cop (gen. co). 
This is often called the Attic declension. The nouns 
(o) i>eco?, temple, and (to) dvcoyecov, hall, are thus de- 
clined : — 



Singular, 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 

N. A Y. 

G. 

D. 



vecos 

ved> 

veco 

vecov 

veoos 



avayecov 

avcoyeco 

dvayeoa 



Dual. 



N. A. Y. 
G. D. 



K A. V. 
G. D. 



vca> 
vecov 



dvcoyeco 
dv&yecov 



Plural. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A 
Y. 

N. A. V. 

G. 

D. 



P€CO 



vecov 



vetos 
veco 



avcoycco 

dvSyecou 

aycoyeeo? 



The accent of these nouns is irregular. (See § 22, N. 2 ; and § 25, 
2, Note. See also § 52 7 1, N. 2.) 

Note. Some masculines and feminines of this class may drop v of 



§ 44.] 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



93 



the accusative singular ; as Aaycos, accus. Xdycov or \dyco. So "A0cos, 
tov*A6cdv or*A6cD ; Kwy, r?)z/ Kay or Kco; and KeW, Tccos, Mows. "E<09, 
dawn, lias regularly r^f "Eco. 

Contract Nouns of the Second Declension. 

§ 43. Many nouns in eo?, oos, eov, and oov are con- 
tracted. Noos, vov$, mind, and ocrreov, barovv, bone, are 
thus declined : — 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



Singular. 



voos 
voov 
v6(o 
voov 
voe 



vovs 

vov 

vco 

vovv 

vov 



N. A.V. ocrriov oarovv 

G. do~T€OV QCTTOV 

D. oareay oorco 



Dual. 

N.A.Y. v6<o 
G. D. j/ooij/ 



z>co 



N". A.V. OCTT€CO OCTTCO 

G. D. 



O0~T€OLV OUTOLV 



Plural. 



N.A.Y. ocrria oo~Ta 

G. do~T€(DV OO-TCOV 

D. oar eo is octtoIs 



VOOL 


VOL 


VOCOV 


VOOV 


VOOLS 


vols 


voovs 


vovs 


VOOl 


vol 



For the forms in eo? and oov, which are generally adjectives, 
see § 65. 

Note. The accent of these contract forms is irregular in several 
points : — 

1. The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual contract 6co into 
o (not a)). See §24, 1. 

2. Adjectives in eos circumflex the last syllable of all contract 
forms; as xpvcreos, xpvo-ovs (not ^pvaovs, § 24, 1). So itdveov, Kavovv, 
basket. 

3. The contracted forms of compounds in oos follow the accent 
of the contracted nominative singular; as avriirvooS) avriTrvovs, gen. 
dvTLTrvoov, dvTL7rvov (not aVTUTVOv) , &C. 



Dialects. 



§ 44. Gen. Sing. For ov, Epic oio, Doric <o (for oo) ; as Btolo, 
fjL€yd\(o. 

Gen. and Dot. Dual. Epic ouv for oiv. 
Dat. Plur. Ionic and poetic ota-i for ois. 
Ace. Plur. Doric cos for ovs. ...',■■ 



24 



INFLECTION. 



[§45. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 45. 1. This declension includes all nouns not belong- 
ing to either the first or the second. Its genitive singular 
ends in o? (sometimes ©?). 

2. The stem of a noun of the third declension cannot always 
be determined by the nominative singular ; but it is generally 
found by dropping os (or cos) of the genitive. The cases are 
formed by adding to the stem the following endings (which here 
are not united with any letter of the stem) : — 





Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




Masc. <fc Fern. Neuter. 


Mas., Fern., Neu. 


Masc. &Fcm. Ncut. 


N. 


S None (rarely s) 




JST. cs a 


G. 


os, as 


N.A.V. c 


G. cw 


D. 


V 

t 


G. D. otv 


D. o-r 


A. 


a or v LikeN. 




A. as a 


V. 


None, or like N. Like N. 




v. « s 



Nominative Singular. 

§ 46. The forms of the nominative singular of this declen- 
sion are numerous, and must be learned partly by practice. 
The following are the general principles on which the nomina- 
tive is formed from the stem. 

1. In neuters, the nominative singular is generally the same 
as the stem. Stems ending in r (including vr) regularly drop 
the r (§ 7). E. g. 

2o>/xa, (rcopar-os ', fxeX'dv (neuter of /ie'Aa?), peXav-os; \vaav (neuter 
of \vcras), Xtcrai/T-or ; irav, iravr-os ; nBivj Tt&Vr-o? ; x a P uv > X a P L€VT ' os ^ 
bihov, hMur-os\ Xeyoi/, \£yovr-os', dcacvvu (v), hciKvvvr-os. For the 
masculine nominatives of these adjectives and participles, see below, 
§ 46, 2, 3, and Note 1. 

Some neuter stems in ar form the nominative in as, and a few in 
ap ; as Tepas, repar-os ; r)7rap, {jnar-os. 

2. Masculine and feminine stems (except those included un- 
der 3 and 4) form the nominative singular by adding s and 
making the needful euphonic changes (§ 16). E. g. 

<l>i;Xa£, (f)v\aK-os m , yity, yvir-os ] (j>\€\j/, (£Xe/3-os (§ 16, 2); (Xttis, 
cXnld-os (§ 16, 2; cf. § 47, Note); x<*pui X"P tr ~ 0f ' opvis, opvl6-os', 









§ 47.] ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 25 

vvij, vvkT'OS ; jJidcrTii;, fidcrTLy-os ; <rak7TLy£, araXiTLyy-os. So Aias, A'tavr-os 
(§ 16, 5, X. 1) ; Xvaas, Xvcravr-os ; 7ray, 7rai^T-o? ; nde Is, nQivr-os 
(§ 16, 5) ; x a pL €LS > x a P ieVT ~ 0S i SetKz/us- (u), 8eiKz^W-o?. (The neuters 
of the last five words, Xvcrav, irav, tl6£v, x a P l * v i an d Bclkpvu, are given 
under § 46, 1.) 

3. Masculine and feminine stems in v and p lengthen the last 
vowel if it is short, but are otherwise unchanged in the nomina- 
tive. E. g. 

Alcov, alcov-os ', dalpcov, dalpov-os ; Xifxrju, Xipiiv-os *, #7/3, 6rjp-6s ; a^p, 
dep-oy. 

Exceptions are fieXds, iieXau-os, black; rdXas, rdXav-os, wretched; 

els, iv-6s, one ; Krels, ktzv-os, comb ; pis, piv-os, nose ; which add s. 

4. Masculine stems in ovr generally drop r, and form the 
nominative like stems in v (§ 46, 3). E. g. 

Aecov, XiovT-os ] Xeyoov XeyovT-os ] cou, ovt-os. 

Note 1. Masculine participles from verbs in cojjli change ovt to ovs 
(§ 46, 2) ; as dtdovs. didovr-os (§ 16, 5, H. 1). So a few nouns in 
ovs ; as odovs, tooth, ddovr-os. Neuters in ovr- are regular (§ 46, 1). 

Note. 2. The perfect active participle (§ 68), with a stem in or, 
forms its nominative in cos (masc.) and os (neut.) ; as XcXvkoos, XcXvkos, 
gen. XcXvkot-os. 

Note 3. For nominatives in ns (es) and os, gen. eos, see § 52, 1, 
Note. A few other peculiar formations in contract nouns will be 
noticed below, §§ 54-56. 

Accusative Singular. 

§ 47. 1. Most masculines and feminines form the accusa- 
tive singular by adding a to the stem \ as (frvXcig (<£iAaK-), <fivXai<a ; 
Xecov (Xeovr-), Xeovra. 

2. Nouns in is, vs, avs, and ovs, if the stem ends in a vowel or 
diphthong, change s of the nominative to v ; as noXis, ttoXiv ; Ix&vs, 
Cj(6vv ; vavs, vavv ', jSovs, (3ovv» 

But if the stem ends in a consonant, bcirytones of these classes 
have two forms, one in a and one in v, while others have only 
the form in a ; as epis, epiv or epida ; opvis, opviv or opviQa ; eveXms, 
eveXniv or eveXmda (while ikiris has only iX7rida) ; ttovs (irob-), 



Trooa. 



When there are two forms, that in a is not common in Attic prose. 
2 



t 



26 INFLECTION. [§ 48. 

Note. The anomalous accusative in iv of nouns in «, gen. itos, idos, or 
l6os, may be explained by supposing the original stem of all nouns in is to 
end in c, and the lingual to be a euphonic insertion in certain cases. This 
would also explain the vocative in l, and render the formation of the nomi- 
native singular and the dative plural simpler. 

For accusatives in ea from nouns in ys and evs, see § 52, 1, Note, and 
§ 53, 3, Note 1. 

Vocative Singular. 

§ 48. y Hfche vocative singular of masculines and femi- 
nines is genwally the same as the nominative. 

2. But in the following cases it is the same as the stem : — 
(a). In barytones with stems ending in a liquid; as dalpcov 

(daipov-), VOC. daipov I pfjTcop (p^rop-), VOC prjrop. 

But if the last syllable is accented, the vocative is the same as the 
nominative; as \ipr]v (kip,ev-), voc. \ip,r)v] aWfjp (aWep-), voc. aWrjp. 

(b.) In nouns and adjectives w T hose stems end in vt, final r 
of the stem being dropped (§ 7) ; as ylyas (yiyavr-), voc. ylyav ; 

XeW (Xeoir-), VOC. Xeoz/ ] x a p'^ ls (x a P LevT ~)) voc> X a P i€V * 

But all participles of the third declension have the vocative and 
nominative alike. (Compare "kvcov, loosing, voc. Xvcov, with XcW, lion, 
voc- Xeoi>.) 

(c.) In nouns and adjectives in is, vs, evs, and avs. These 
drop ? of the nominative to form the vocative ; as Ikms (iXmd-), 
VOC. Ikiri (§ 7) ; IxOvt, tySt ; /SacriXeuj, /WiAeO (§ 53, 3, N. 1) ; 
ypavs t ypav (§ 54, Note) ; 7rai9 (for ndis), Tvai (for irai). So in 
compounds of irovs,foot. 

(d.) In nouns and adjectives in ns, gen. coy (ovs). These form 

the vocative in es (§ 52) ; as ScoKpdrrjs, VOC. Sco/cpares ; Tpirjpvs, 

voc. rplnpes ; d\r]6r}s, voc. ahrjOes. For the accent, see § 52, 2, 
Note 1. 

Note. The vocatives "AnoWov, Tloaet^ov, and o-corep (from stems afi 
o)i/ and np) shorten the last vowel and throw back the accent. For 
the vocative -of syncopated nouns, see § 57. y Aydpepvov and some 
other compound proper names throw back their accent. (See § 52, 
2, Note 1. Comparatives in cov (§ 72) have the nominative and voca- 
tive alike. 

3. Nouns in o>, gen. ovs (§ 55), form the vocative in ol. So a 
few in oiVj gen. ovs (§ 55, N. 2) ; as dnbdov, voc. an^ol. 



50.] 



UNCONTRACTED NOUNS. 



27 



Dative Plural. 

§ 49, The dative plural is formed by adding oi to the 
stem. E. g. 

<£uXa£ (<pv\ctK-), <pv\a£i\ prjrcop (prjrop-), prjTopoi', cXttls (eX7rtS-), 
eX7rt(7t ; 7rovs (7706-), 7TOCTL ; Xecoy (Xeoi/r-), XcovCTt *, daipcov (daipov-), 
daipooi, Ti6eis (ritfeyr-), r 160.0- 1 ] x a P L€LS (x a P L€PT ~)> X a P l€(TL ^ La " r ^ 
(ioravT-), lotcloi. ; SaK^us 1 (SetKi/twr-) , deiKvvoi ; jSaoikcvs (ftaoiXev-), 
ftaoikevoi', fiovs (j3ov-), fiovoi\ ypavs (ypav-), ypavoi (§ 54). For the 
euphonic changes, see § 16, 2 and 5, with Notes. 

For changes in syncopated nouns, see § 57. 

Uncontracted Nouns. 

§ 50. The following are examples of the most common 
forms of uncontracted nouns of the third declension. 

For the formation of the cases of these nouns, see §§ 46-49. 
For euphonic changes in nearly all, see § 16, 2, and § 46. For 
special changes in \ccov and ylyas, see § 16, 5. For contract forms 
of nouns in a?, otos, see § 56, 2. 



I. Masculines and Feminines. 





6 ((fivXaK-) 


h (<Me/3-) 


f) (o"aX7rtyy-) 


6 (Xeoir-) 




watchman. 


vein. 
Singular. 


trumpet. 


lion. 


N. 


(j)v\a£ 


CJzXeyf/ 


oakiriy% 


AcGW 


G. 


(f>v\aKos 


(j>\cl36s 


oakinyyos 


\€01>T0S 


D. 


<j)v\aKi 


<£X<r/3/ 


oakirvyyi 


\ioVTL 


A. 


(frvXaica 


<£Xe'/3a 


oakiriyya 


\tOVTCL 


V. 


<f>v\a£ 


<£Xe^ 

Dual. 


oaXniy^ 


\iov 


N. A. V. 


<j)i\aK€ 


4>Ac)3e 


oa\7riyy€ 


\eOVT€ 


G.J). 


<j)v\a.KOiv 


(pXePoiv 
Plural. 


oah7riyyoLP 


XeOVTOLU 


N..V. 


(j)v\aK€S 


(fAefies 


oakmyyts 


Xiovres 


G. 


<pv\aKcov 


<j£)Xe/3a)Z/ 


oa\7rlyy(DV 


\eopTcov 


D. 


(f)v\a£i 


cf>\€yj/l 


oakiny^t. 


\eovot 


A. 


(j>v\a.Kas 


<p\€J3a? 


oakirtyyas 


Xcovras 



28 




INFLECTION 




[§ 50. 




6 (yiyair-) 


fj (e\7rtS-) 


h («p&-) 


6 (fyr-) 




giant. 


hope. 
Singular. 


strife. 


hired man. 


N. 


yiyas 


eXnls 


€plS 


% 


G. 


yiyavTOS 


iXnldos 


epidos 


0TJTOS 


D. 


ytyavTi 


€\ttlBl 


epihi 


6rjrl 


A. 


ylyavra 


iXnida 


epiv (epida) 


Brjra 


V. 


yiyav 


eXiri 

Dual. 


ept 


6qs 


N. A. Y. 


ylyavre 


eXnide 


epiBc 


BrJTt 


G. D. 


yiydvroiv 


eXmdoiv 
- Plural. 


ipldoiv 


6rjTolv 


N. V. 


yiyavres 


eXnldes 


tfpides 


6rJT€S 


G. 


yiydvTcov 


iXnidcov 


ipibcov 


6r)T<ov 


D. 


yiyacri 


iXirLcri 


epicri 


Brjcrl 


A. 


ylyavras 


€X7ri8as 


epidas 


Brjras 




6 (7T0t/iei/-) 


6 (a to) J/-) 


6 (Saifiov-} 


6 (prjTop-) 




shepherd. 


age. 
Singular. 


divinity. 


orator. 


N. 


TTOlfMTJV 


alcov 


dalfioav 


prjTcop 


G. 


7T0ip.€V0S 


alcovos 


Balfiovos 


prjropos 


D. 


TZOl\livi 


altovL 


dal/JLOVL 


prjropi 


A- 


7T0lfJ.€Va 


alcova 


daifiova 


prjTopa 


V. 


7T0LflTjV 


aloov 

Dual. 


dalfiov 


prjrop 


N. A. V. 


7T0LfJL€V€ 


alcove 


datp.ov€ 


prjTope 


G. D. 


7T0LfX€V0lV 


alcovotv 
Plural. 


baip.6voiv 


prjTopotv 


N. V. 


7TOlfl€V€S 


alcoves 


baljxoves 


prjropes 


G. 


iroLyAvcov 


alcovcov 


daifiovtov 


prjropcov 


D. 


7roifie<ri 


alcoai 


baljiodL 


pT)TOp(Tt 


A. 


7T0lfJL€VaS 


alcovas 


dalfJLQVdS 


prjropas 



§52.] 



CONTRACT NOUNS. 



29 





II. Neuters. 
t6 (o-co/zczt-) 
body. 


TO (jepCLT-) 

prodigy. 


N. A. V. 

G. 

D. 


(Tcofia 

(TGDfJLaTOS 

ewfiari 


Singular. 
Dual. 


ripas 

reparos 

report 


N. A. V. 
G. D. 


crco/xarc 

o-co/idrotv 


Plural 


T€paT€ 

rcpdroip 


N. A. V. 

G. 

D. 


aodfjLacn 




repara 

repdrav 

rkpaat 



Contract Nouns. 

§ 51. 1. Most nouns of the third declension in which 
a vowel of the stem precedes a vowel in the case-ending 
are contracted in some of their cases. 

2. The contracted nominative and accusative plural 
have the same form. (See, however, § 53, 3, N. 3.) 

§ 52. 1. Nouns in 779 (e?) and o?, gen. eo?, are con- 
tracted whenever e of the stem precedes a vowel. 

Note. A comparison of kindred languages shows that the original stem 
of these nouns ended in e<r f in which <r is dropped before a vowel or another 
<y in the case-ending (§ 16, 4, Note). The genitive yeueos y therefore, stands 
for an original form yeuec-os, which, however, is never found in Greek. 
(See § 56, 1, Note.) The proper substantive stems change es to os in the 
nominative singular (as in yfros, re?xos) ; the adjective stems lengthen es 
to ijs in the masculine and feminine, and retain es in the neuter. (See 
§66.) A few adjectives in Trjprjs are used substantively, as rpirjprjs (triply 
fitted, sc. vavs), trireme. 

2. The nouns (77) Tpvr\pT]^^ trireme, and (to) yei/09, race, 
are thus declined : — 



30 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 53. 



Singular. 



N. 


TpLrjpT]? 






yhos 




G. 
D. 


Tpir)p€0$ 

rpiTjpe'i 


TpLTJpOVS 

Tpirjp€i 




y£v€os 
yeve'i 


ytvovs 
yevu 


A. 
Y. 


Tpitjpea 
rpirjpes 


TpiijpT) 


Dual. 


ytvos 
ykvos 




N.A.Y. 


TplT)p€€ 


rpifjpr) 




yevee 


ykm\ 


G. D. 


Tpirjpeoiu 


rpirjpoiv 


Plural. 


yeveoiv 


yevoZv 


N. V. 

G. 


TplT]p€€S 

rpirjpeoav 


Tpifjpeis 
rpirjpcov 




yevea 
yeveayp 


yivrj 
yevcbv 


D. 


TplTJp€(Tl 






yeveat 




A. 


TpLTjpeas 


rpirjpeis 




ykvea 


ykvr) 



Note 1. Barytones in r\$ throw back the accent as far as possible 
in all forms ; as voc. ^wKpares, Arjfioafeves, from 2a>KpdTrjs, Arjpoadevrjs, 
declined like rpirjprjs in the singular. 

Note 2. When the termination ea is preceded by a vowel, it is 
generally contracted into a; as vyirjs, healthy, accus. sing, vyua, vyia 
(sometimes vyirj) ; XP* 0S > debt, N. A. Y. plur. XP*<*- ^ n the dual, €€ * s 
irregularly contracted into rj. 

Note 3. Proper names in kXctjs are doubly contracted in the da- 
tive, sometimes in the accusative. HepiKXtrjs, Pericles, is thus de- 
clined : — 



N. 


lie packer]? 


UcpiKkrjs 




a. 


UepLKkeeos 


TlepiicKeovs 




D. 


UepiKXeel 


nepi/cXeet 


Hepuckcl 


A. 


TlepiKkkea 


IlfpiKXed 


nepiKkr) 


Y. 


UepLKhees 


UepLicXcis 





For Ionic forms of these nouns, see § 59, 4. 

§ 53. Nouns in *? and i (stems in C), v? and v (stems 
in v), and eu<?, contract only the dative singular, and the 
nominative, accusative, and vocative plural. 

1. Most stems in i, with a few in v, change their final t 
or v to e in all cases except the nominative, accusative, and 
vocative singular. 



§53.] 



CONTRACT NOUNS. 



31 



The nouns (jj) TrdXis, city, (stem 7ro\6-) 5 th^u?, cubit, 
(stem irrj^v), and aarv, city (stem aori/-), are thus de- 
clined : — 



N. 


7T0\lS 


G. 


TroXecos 


D. 


7ro\ei 


A. 


7T0\lV 


V. 


TToXl 


N.A.V. 


7ToXf€ 


G. D. 


troXeoiv 


N. V. 


7ro\€es 


G. 


noXecov 


D. 


TToXeCTL 


A. 


Trokeas 



TToXci 



7TT]XVS 
7Tr]\€COS 

"fa*! 
irrjxyv 

Dual. 

irrixee 
nrfx^oLV 

Plural. 



«"?*« 



aarv 

a(TT€os (aorea)?) 

acrret acrret 

aarv 

aarv 



&(TT€€ 
d(TT€OLV 



7ro\eis 



7ri]xeis 



7ro\ei9 



7T7JXCIS 



aorta 
acrrecoi/ 
aoreo-fc 
aa-Tea 



acrnj 



CKTTT] 



irrjxees 

7rr)X €cov 

7rf)x €(Tt 

nrjxcas 

For the Ionic forms of nouns in is, see § 59, 2. 

Note 1. Nouns in i are declined like aa-rv ; as (to) o-ivain, mustard, 
gen. o-ivdneos, dat. a-wanel, awaKei, &c. 

Note 2. The genitives in eo>s and eav of nouns of this class accent 
the antepenult. 

2. Most nouns in v$ retain v and are regular ; as (o) l%d J?, 
fish, which is thus declined : — 



Singular. 



N. 


lx&v$ 




G. 


IxBvos 


N. A. Y. i x 0v€ 


D. 


ix^vi (ixQvi) 


G. D. IxQvoiv 


A. 


Ix&vv 




V. 


l X 0v 





Dual. 



Plural. 
N.V. l x ei€s (l x 0v S ) 

G. IxOvQDV 

D. Ix&vcri 

A. IxOuas lx@vs 



Note 1. The contracted nominative plural in vs is not common. 
The contracted dative in vi is Homeric. 



32 



INFLECTION. 



[§54. 



Note 2. Adjectives in vs are declined in the masculine like irrjxvs, 
and in the neuter like aarv. But the masculine genitive ends in cos 
(like the neuter) : and cos and ca are not contracted. (See § 67.) 
"Ao-tv is the principal noun in v ; its genitive aarcas is poetic. 



o 
O. 



Nouns in eu? retain ev in the nominative and vocative 
singular and dative plural; as (o) ftaaiXevs, king (stem 
fiaaikev-), which is thus declined : — 





Singular, 


Dual, 




Plural 


N. 


f$acri\cvs 




n.y. 


paaiXccs ftaaiKcis 


G. 


ftao'Lkccos 


N.A.V. jWiXee 


G. 


(3acri\i<ov 


D. 


/SacrtXet ftao'ikc'i 


G. D. paaikcoiv 


D. 


(Bacrikcvo'L 


A. 


ftao-ikcd 




A. 


jSao-iXedy 


V. 


fiao-fXcv 









Xote 1. The stem of nouns in cvs ended originally in *f (§ 1, 
ISTote 2), in which f was dropped before a vowel and was elsewhere 
changed to v- The cases of these nouns are therefore perfectly regu- 
lar, except in as of the genitive (only Attic, see § 59, 3), and long a 
and as in the accusative. (See § 54.) 

Note 2. The older Attic writers (as Thucydides) contract ccs in the 
nominative plural of nouns in cvs into rjs] as i7T7r?)y, j3a<riX»)y, for limcls, 
/3ao-iXeTy. The form in rjs is rarely found also in the accusative plural ; 
but here cds usually remains uncontracted. 

Note 3. When a vowel precedes, ccos of the genitive singular may 
be contracted into a>y, and ca of the accusative singular into a ; rarely 
cas of the accusative plural into ay, and ccov of the genitive plural 
into a>v. Thus, Ilcipaicvs, Peiraeus ; gen. Ileipaieoy, Tlcipaias; accus. 
Hcipaica, Ucipaia ; [x ™**] a kind of measure ; ^oecoy, xooas ; x°* a i X ** i 
X°e a *i X°^ s J Acopievy, Dorian ; gen. plur. AcopteW, Aapiwv. 

§ 54. The nouns (6, ^) £o{)y, o.r or coiv (stem /3ou-), (9) ypavy, 
old woman (stem ypau-), and (r)) vavs, ship (stem vav), are pecu- 
liar in their declension. 

The stems of these nouns were originally $of-, ypaF-, and vaF (com- 
pare the Latin hov-is and nav-is), which dropped f before a vowel 
and changed it to v elsewhere. (See § 53, 3, jST. 1.) For dialectic 
forms of vavs, in which it is much more regular than in Attic, see 
the Lexicon. In Attic, it changes va- to vc- before w and oi, and to 
vr)- before c and i. They are thus declined : — 



§55.] 



CONTRACT NOUNS. 



33 



N. 


f3ovs 


G. 


/3o6s 


D. 


/Sot 


A. 


fHovv 


V. 


/3o0 


N.A.V. 


&0€ 


G. D. 


fioolv 


H.T. 


(56cs 


G. 


/SoG)V 


D. 


fiovcrl 


A. 


fiovs 



Singular. 

ypavs 

ypaos 

ypat 

ypavv 

ypav 

Dual. 

ypae 
ypaolv 

Plural. 

ypaes 
ypacov 
ypavcri 
ypavs 



vavs 
vccbs 

VT]t 

vavv 
vav 



VT]€ 
V€OiV 



VTJ€S 

vecov 

vavcri 

vavs 



§ 55. Some feminities in <o contract 60s, 61, and 6a in the 
singular into ovs, oi, and a>, and form the vocative singular 
irregularly in 61 The dual and plural (which rarely occur) 
follow the second declension. 'H^w (17), echo, is thus declined: — 



Singular. 



N. 


hx°> 






G. 


[vx°°*] 


tjx°vs 


n. a.y 


D. 


[w«] 


Tj X 0l 


G. D. 


A. 


Rx«»] 


hx«> 




V. 


hx™ 







Dual. 



hx«> 
hx™ 



Plural. 

N.V. fco/ 

G. 

D. 

A. 



vx* v 

rjxols 

T]X°VS 



Note 1. Two nouns in cos, aldas, shame, and the Ionic fas, morn- 
ing, are declined like r)x<a ; as aldas, aldovs, aldoi, aldco (not aldco), 
aldot. 

Nouns in cos, gen. coos, are regular, but are sometimes contracted ; 
as fjpcos, hero, rjpcoos, rjpcoX (or rjpco), tfpcoa (or rjpco), &C 

Note 2. A few nouns in <ov (as fi/caw, image, and d^Sebv, nightin- 
gale) have forms like those of nouns in a> ; as gen. cIkovs, drjbovs ; 
accus. eiKco ; voc. dndot 

Note 3. The uncontracted forms of these nouns, in 60s, 61, and 6a, 
are not used. Herodotus has an accusative singular in ovv ; as y lovv 
for 'I<d, from 'la>, *lovs> 

2* 



« 34 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 56. 



§ 56. 1. Neuters in as, gen. aos, are contracted when the 
a of the stem is followed by a vowel ; as (to) yepas, prize, which 
is thus declined : — 



N 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



Singular. 

yepas 

yepaos yepas 



y€pai 
ye pas 
yepas 



yepa 



Dual. 

~N. yepa€ yepa 

G. D. yepdoiv yepav 



Plural. 



K 


yepaa 


yepa 


G. 


yepdcov 


yepoav 


D. 


yepacri 




A. 


yepaa 


yepa 


V. 


yepaa 


yepa 



"Kote. The original stem of these nouns in as, gen. aos, is supposed to 
have ended in etc, as that of nouns in 77s and os, gen. eos, is supposed to 
have ended in ecr (§ 52, 1, Note). Here acr dropped a- "before a vowel 
or <r, but retained it in the nominative. Neuters in as, aros, which 
drop r (§ 56, 2) would he said, according to this view, to have one 
stem in ar, and another in a(a), the latter appearing in the nominative 
singular. According to this view, nouns in as form their nominative 
regularly (§ 46, 1). 

2. A few neuters in as, gen. aros, drop r and are contracted 

like yepas', as (to) Kepas, horn, gen. KepaTos, Kepaos, Kepcos ; dat. 
KepaTi, Kepal, Kepa ; plur. Kepara, Kepaa, Kepa ; KepaTM, Kepd<cv, Kepcou ; 
tcepao-i. 

Note. 'AttoXXcdv and Uocr€ido!>v (IIoQ-eiddav) contract the accusative 
into 'AttoXXco and Ilocreidco, after dropping v. 

For a similar contraction of ova into a, and of oves and ovas into ovs, 
see the declension of comparatives, § 72, 2. 



Syncopated Nouns. 

§ 57, Some nouns in r)p (stem ep), gen. epos, are syncopated 
(§ 14, 2) by dropping * in the genitive and dative singular. In 
the dative plural they change ep to pa before <ri. The accent is 
irregular, the syncopated genitive and dative being accented on 
the last syllable (except in ArjfirjTrjp), and the vocative throwing 
the accent as far back as possible. 

1. JlaTrjp (6)» father, and BvyaTtjp (%), daug/Uer 9 are thus de- 
clined : — 



§57.] 



SYNCOPATED NOUNS. 



35 



Singular. 



N. 


iraTrjp 






Ovydrrjp 




G. 


narepos 


irarpos 




6vyar€pos 


Qvyarpos 


D. 


izarkpi 


Trarpi 




Bvyarkpi 


Bvyarpl 


A. 


narepa 






6vyarepa 




V. 


ndrep 




Dual. 


tivyartp 




N.A.V. 


Trarepe 






tivyarepe 




G. D. 


iraripow 




Plural. 


QvyaripoLv 




N.V. 


irarepfs 






Svyarepes 




G. 


7raT€pa>v 






Bvyarepcav 




D. 


trarpcKTi 






6vyarpd(Ti 




A. 


Trarepas 






Bvyaripas 





Note 1. Mrjrrjp (q), mother, and yaoTTjp (17), belly, are declined and 
accented like narrjp. Thus, prjrrjp has p-qrepos, prjrpos, and prjrepi, 
prjrpi 

'Atrrfjp (6), star, has aorpao-t in the dative plural, but is otherwise 
regular. 

Note 2. The uncontracted forms of all these nouns are often used 
by the poets, who also syncopate other cases of Ovydrrjp. 

2. 'Avrjp (6), man, drops e whenever a vowel follows ep, and 
inserts d in its place. It is thus declined : — 



Singular. 



N. 


dvrjp 




G. 


dvcpos 


dvbpos 


D. 


dvipi 


dvbpl 


A. 


dvepa 


avbpa 


V. 


avep 





Dual. 



N.A.V. dve'pt Zvdpt 



G.D. 



auepoiv 



olv 



Plural. 

N. V. dvepes avSpes 

G. duepcov dvbp&v 

D. dvhpdvi 

A. dvepas avdpas 



3. The proper name Arjprjrrjp syncopates all the oblique cases, 
and then accents the first syllable. Thus, gen. ArjprjTepos, 

Arjprjrpos ; dat. Arjpr)T€pi 9 Arjprjrpt, ; acCUS. ArjprjTcpa, ArjprjTpa ', VOC 
ArjprjTcp. 



>6 INFLECTION. [§ 58. 

Gender of the Third Declension. 

§ 58. The gender of many nouns in this declension must 
be learned by observation. A few general rules, however, ma;y 
be given. 

1. The following are masculine : substantives ending in dv, 
7]v, €vs, most of those in np and ap, and all that have vros in the 
genitive. Except (rj) <t>pr}i>, mind, 

2. The following are feminine : those in avs, rns (gen. ttjtos), 
as (gen. ados), a> or as (gen. ovs), and most of those in is. 

3. The following are neuter : those in a, ??, t, v, ap, op, os, and 
as (gen. aros or aos). 

Dialects. 

§ 59. 1. Gen. and Dat. Dual. Homeric ouv for ow. 
Dat. Plur. Homeric ccrcri, eat, crcri, for crt. 

2. The original 1 of the stem of nouns in ts (Attic gen. ens) is re- 
tained in the Doric and Ionic. Thus, 7roXt?, ttoXios, (noXu) 7r6Xl ttoXiv, 
7roXt; Dual, noXie, iroXiow) Plur. 7r6Xt€s, ttoXicdv, 7toXkti, noXias (Hdt. 
7roXtf). Homer generally has the Attic 7roXet (with 7roXeV) and 7rdXeai 
in the dative. There are also Epic forms noXnos, irokrfi. iroXnes, noXnas. 
The Attic poets have noXeos- 

3. In nouns in cvs, Doric and Ionic fiaaiXcos for Pao-iXecos) Epic 
also fiao-iXrjos, Pao-iXij'L /3acnXrja ; fSao-iXfje. fBao-iXrjoiv ; /Sao-iX^er, /3a(riXqa)i/, 
f3acn\r)€o-o-i, ^ao-iXrjas. Doric fia<riXr} for fiao-iXea, sometimes used by 
Attic poets. Herodotus contracts eo? in the gen. into evs. 

4. Nouns in kXctjs (sometimes others in ins) drop the e in Herodo- 
tus; as 'HpaicXeTjs. 'HpaicXrjs. They are then declined like nouns in 
ns] 'HpaKXcoj, 'Hpa/cXet, c Hpa*Xea, "Hpa/cXf?. In Homer, ee is con- 
tracted into 7; (as 'HpaicXrjos, 'HpaKXrj'i, 'Hpa/cX^a) ; but sometimes into 
€i (as cvicXefjs, cvicXeeas. contracted eiiAcXeiay). KXeor, #for#, contracts 
KXe'ca into AcXea in Homer. 

IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

§ 60. 1. Nouns which belong to more than one declension 
are called heteroclites. Thus o-kotos, darkness, is usually declined 
like Xoyos (§41), but sometimes like yhos (§ 52, 2). So Oldlnovs, 
Oedipus, has genitive Olbinobos or OtdtVov, dative o18l7to8i 9 accusa- 
tive Oldinoba or Oidinovv. 

Especially, proper names in ns (gen. eos) of the third declen- 



60.] 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 



37 



sion (except those in k\£t]s) have also an accusative in rjv like 

those of the first ; as Arjp.o(x6€urjs, acCUS. ArjpocrBivrju or Arjpoadeinj. 
So nouns in a? (gen. avros or avos) have poetic forms like the 
first declension; as IloXvSd/zar, voc. UoiXvddpa (Horn.); Alas, 
accus. A?av. 

2. Nouns which have more than one gender are called hete- 
rogeneous ; as (6) (tItos, corn, plur. (to) alra. 

3. Defective nouns have only certain cases; as ovap, dream, 
ofaXos, use (only nom. and accus.) ; (rfju) vicjya, snow (only accus.). 

4. Indeclinable nouns have one form for all cases. These are 
chiefly foreign words, as 'Addp, 9 l<rpafj\ ; and names of letters, 
*AX<£a, Bf}ra, &C. 



5. Many of the most important irregularities in declension 
will be seen by consulting the Lexicon under the following 
words : — 



'A 18779, Hades. 
ava£, avaKTOs, king. 

dpvos (gen.), lamb. 

yd\a, ydXcucros, milk. 

ydvv, ydvaros or yovvds, knee. 

yvvr), yvvaucds, wife. 

hdpv, doparos or 8op6s, spear. 

cap (rjp), eapos or rjpos, spring. 

€t*a>i/, cIkopos or cIkovs, image. 

Zevs, Aids, Zeus. 

rjirap, fjiraros, liver. 

fjp<os, fjpcoos, hero. 

6pL£, rpi X ds, hair (§ 17, 2, Note). 

AcdXcof, KaXco, cable. 

Kapd (Kpds), Kpdaros or Kpards, 

head. 
kXcls (k\t}s), k\cMs or KKrjdds, 

key. 
kvcov, kvvqs, dog. 
Xaas (Xas), Xaos or Xdov, stone. 
\iira,fat, oil. 



p,dprvs, p.dprvpos, witness, 
vavs, vads (Attic ved>s), ship (§ 54). 
Sis {oh), oios {olds), sheep, 
oveipov, ovclparos, dream, 
opvis, opvldos, bird, 
oaae (dual), eyes, 
ovs, a>TOff, ear. 
Uvv^, Uvkvos, Pnyx. 
irpeapvs, old man, and ambassa- 
dor ; compare irpco-fivTr)s and 

7Tp€0-l3€VTT)S. 

irvp, irvpds, fire. 

pddou, rose. 

(Twios or o-7T6toy, cave. 

vdcop, vftaTos, water. 

vlds, vlov or vUos, vlos, SOU. 



X"Pi X«P°r, 



hand. 



Xoos (x oi ^)> a measure. 
Xdos (x°vs)i a mound. 
Xpe<*>s (rd), debt. 
Xfx*>s> XP Gir ^ skin. 



38 INFLECTION. [§.61. 

LOCAL ENDINGS. 

§ 61. These endings may be added to nouns to denote 
place : — 

-0i, denoting where ; as aiCkoQi, elseivhere ; ovpavodi, in heaven. 

-#ei>, denoting ivhence; as olicodev, from home, 

•8e (-£e or -o-e), denoting whither ; as o'Uafe, homeward, 

Note 1. In Homer, the forms in -6i and -6cv are governed by a 
preposition as genitives ; as 'iXidtft 7rpd, before Ilium ; e£ akoBev, from 
the sea. 

Note 2. Sometimes a relic of an original locative case is found, 
with the ending i in the singular and an in the plural ; as 'icrtf/iol, at 
the Isthmus ; 'Adrjvrjo-i, at Athens. These forms (and indeed those of 
§ 61) are commonly classed among adverbs. 

Note 3. The Epic ending <£i or qjiv forms a genitive or dative in 
both singular and plural. It is sometimes locative, as k\lo-lt}(J)l, in the 
tent ; and sometimes has other meanings of the genitive or dative, as 
fiirjfa) with violence. So after prepositions ; as irapa vaixfrn, by the ships* 



ADJECTIVES. 

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 

§ 62. 1. Most adjectives in o? have three endings, o? ? 
77, ov. The masculine and neuter are of the second declen- 
sion, and the feminine is of the first; as <7o<£o'? ; go^t}, 
<to$ov, ivise. 

2. If a vowel or p precedes o?, the feminine ends in a ; 
as agios, d%ia, agiov y worthy. But adjectives in 00$ have 
or) in the feminine, except those in poos ; as clttXoos, aifKorj, 
dirXoov, simple ; dOpdos, dOpoa, dOpoov, crowded. 

3. %o$6s, wise, and agios, icorthy, are thus declined : — 

Singular. 



N. 


(TO(f)6s 


<ro<f)r) 


cro<p6v 


a£ios 


a%ia 


a^iov 


G. 


o~o(f)ou 


(TO(f)7]S 


(Tocfynv 


d£iov 


d£ias 


d£iov 


D. 


<ro<fio} 


(TOtfirj 


<TO<{)(0 


d£icp 


1 f. 1 
agia 


dgup 


A. 


crocpov 


croqbrjv 


(TO(f>OU 


cifziov 


d^lav 




V. 


crorf>( 


(Tofprj 


crocpov 


8£* 


i£la 


a£toi> 



§ 64.J ADJECTIVES. — FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 39 



Dual. 



N. A. V. <ro<f>d> <ro<f)d crocpco 
G. D. <ro(f)OLV (rocpatv croefiotv 



Plural. 



N. V. ao(j)oi aocpai aocfid 

G. CTO<pCOV CTO(f)COV (TCKpCOV 

D. <To(f)ois oro<pai$ aocfxus 

A. aocpovs crowds acxpd 



a£toi> a^ta a£iG> 
at~ioiv agiaiv a^ioiv 



a£ioi a£tai «£ta 
agicov a^icov agicov 
allots d£lais d£iois 



So fiaicpos, fiaicpd, fiaicpov, long ; gen. fiaKpov, fiaKpds, fiaKpov ; dat. 
fxaicpcpj P'CtKpa.j paKpco, &c, like a£tos> 

All participles in os are declined like <ro(fi6s. 

§ 63. Some adjectives in os, especially compounds, have 
only two endings, os and o^, the feminine being the same as the 
masculine. They are declined like acxfios, omitting the feminine ; 
as dXoyos, aXoyov ; gen. aXoyov ; dat. dXoyco, &C. 

Note. Some adjectives may be declined with either two or three 
endings. 

§ 64. A few adjectives of the second declension end in as 
and cov, and are declined like ve&s and dvayecov. Evyecos, fertile, 
and dyrjpcos, free from old age, are thus declined : — 

Singular. 



N.,V. 


€Vy€G>S 


evyecov 


ay r) pecs 


dyrjpcov 


G. 


cvyeco 


cvyeco 


dyrjpco 


dyrjpco 


D. 


evycco 


cvyeco 


dyrjpco 


dyr)pcp 


A. 


€Vy€U>V 


€Vy€COV 

Dual. 


dyrjpcov 


dyrjpcov 


N. A.V. 


€Vy€(0 


evycco 


dyrjpco 


dyrjpco 


G. D. 


evyecov 


cvyecov 

Plural. 


dyrjpcov 


dyrjpcov 


N. V. 


cvyecp 


evytco 


dyrjpco 


ayrjpco 


G. 


€Vy€COV 


€Vy€COV 


ayrjpcov 


dyrjpcov 


D. 


cvyecos 


evyecos 


dyrjpco s 


ay fj peps 


A. 


cvyccos 


€Vy€€D 


dyrjpco? 


dyrjfxo 



For the accent of evyeeds, see § 22, Note 2. 



40 



INFLECTION. 



[§65. 



§ 65, Many adjectives in cos and oos are contracted. Xpv- 
creoff, golden, dpyvpcos, of silver, and &7r\6os, simple, are thus 
declined : — 



G-. xpvaeov xP v(r °v 
D. ^pvcrew xpvcr<p 
A. xpvcreov xp va °v p 



Singular, 

Xpvcrea XP v(r l 

Xpvcreas XP V(T V S 

Xpvo-ea XP v(T fl 

Xpvo-eav XP vo ^ v 



Xpwtov xp V(TOVV 

Xpvcriov xP v<r °v 

XpV(T6(p xP v<r< ? 

Xpvcreov XP V(T0 ^ V 



N. xP vcr ^ ( ° XP V(T( ^ 
Gr. XP V(T * 0LV XP V(T0LV 



Dual. 
Xpvo-ea xputra 
Xpvcreaw xP vaa ^ v 



Xpvveco xP v<TCl> 
Xpvviow XP V(T0LV 



IT. xp 1 ^ a ' €0L xP v(ro ? 

Gr. XP V(T * C0V XP V(T *° V 

D. xP v(T * 0l $ xP vcro ' LS 

A. xp V(T * 0VS xP v(ro ^ s 



Plural. 

Xpvcrcai xp v(ra ^ 

Xpvo-eav xp v(T ® v 

Xpvvecus xP vcraLS 

Xpv&eas XP V(T ^ S 



Xpvcrca xP v<Ta 

Xpv<rea>v XP V(T <° V 

Xpwiois XP V(T01S 

Xpvcrea XP V0 '^ 



N. dpyvpeos dpyvpovs 

Gr. dpyvpeov dpyvpov 

D. dpyvpico dpyvpco 

A. dpyvpeov apyvpovv 



Singular. 

apyvpea dpyvpa 

apyvpeas dpyvpds 

apyvpia dpyvpa 

dpyvpiav dpyvpdv 



apyvpeov apyvpovv 

dpyvpeov dpyvpov 

apyvpeco dpyvpa 

dpyvpeov apyvpovv 



N. 
G. 



apyvpeco apyvpco 
apyvpeoiv dpyvpolu 



Dual. 

dpyvpea dpyvpa 
dpyvpeaiv dpyvpalv 



apyvpeco apyvpco 
apyvpeoiv dpyvpolv 



N. dpyvpeoi dpyvpol 

Gr. dpyvpecov dpyvpeov 

D. dpyvpeois dpyvpots 

A . dpyvpeovs dpyvpovs 



Plural. 

apyvpeai dpyvpa? 

apyvpecov dpyvpeov 

apyvpeacs dpyvpals 

apyvpeas dpyvpds 



apyvpea apyvpa 
apyvpecov dpyvpeov 
dpyvpeois dpyvpols 
apyvpea dpyvpa 



§66.] 



ADJECTIVES. — THIBD DECLENSION. 



41 









Singular. 






N. 


cnrXoos 


dnXovs 


dnXorj dnXr] 


dnXoou 


a7rXovp 


G. 


dnXoov 


djrXov 


d7rX6rjs d7tXrjs 


dnXoov 


a7rXov 


D. 


d7rXoo) 


anXcp 


dnXorj anX?) 


dnXoco 


dnX(o 


A. 


dnXoov 


dnXovv 


dnXoTjv dnXrju 

Dual. 


dnXoop 


dnXovv 


1ST. 


dirXoco 


dnXo) 


dnXoa a7rXa 


dirXooa 


d7rXa) 


G. 


dnXooiv 


dirXoiv 


dirXoaw dnXalv 
Plural. 


dnXooiv 


dnXdiv 


N. 


dnXooi 


dnXol 


dnXocu d7rXal 


dnXoa 


dirXa 


G. 


drrXocov 


dnXcov 


dirXoobv dnXcJv 


dirXooav 


dnXcov 


D. 


dnXoois 


d7rXols 


dnXoais dirXais 


dnXoois 


dnXois 


A. 


dnXoovs 


a7rXovs 


dnXoas 077X0.9 


dnXoa 


dnXa 



For the accent, see § 43, Note. For irregular contraction, see § 9, 
2, Note; and § 9, 3, Note. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 66. Adjectives belonging only to the third declension 
have two endings. Most of these end in 779 and €9, or in cov 
and ov. 9 A\rj6ri^.true, and ireircov^ ripe, are thus declined: — 



Singular. 







M. F. 


N. 


N. 




aXr)6r]S 


dXrj$€S 


G. 




dXrjGeos dXr)6ovs 


D. 




dXrjdii dXrjOel 




A. 




dXrjOia dXrjSrj 


dXrjdes 


Y. 




dXrjQes 




N. 


A. 


V. dXr)$€€ dXr)6rj 


D 


G. 


D. 


dXrjBeoiv dXrjBoiv 



Plural. 
N. Y. dXrj$€€S dXTjOels dXrjBea dXTj6rj 

G. dXrjOecov dXrjOaiu 

D. aXr)6icri 

A. dXrjBeas dXrfSeli dXrj&ia dXrj6rj 



M. F. N. 

iren&v tt€7tou 

7T€7TOVOS 
7T€7TOVL 
7T€7TOVa 7T€7TOP 

7T€7TOV 



7T€7TOV€ 
7T€7t6pOIV 



7T€7TOV€S 7T€7TOVa 

Trenovcov 

7T€7rO<Jl 
7T€7TOVaS 1T€7mva 



42 



INFLECTION. 



[§67. 



Note 1. One adjective in av, e*a>i/, eKovcra, £kov, willing, has three 
endings, and is declined like participles in cov (§ 68). So its com- 
pound, cikcop (deKODp), unwilling. 

Note 2. "id pis, 18 pi, knowing, gen. Idpios, dat. Id pi (for Idpu), accus. 
Ibpiv, 1dpi, voc, XbpL, is regular. See the Lexicon. 

Note 3. Adjectives compounded of nouns and a prefix are gen- 
erally declined like those nouns ; as eveXiris, hopeful, gen. eveXmfios : 
evxapts, graceful, gen. evxdpiros (§ 50). But compounds of Trarfjp and 
firjrvp end in cop (gen. opos), and those of noXis in is (gen. ibos). 

Note 4. Some adjectives of the third declension have only one 
ending, which is both masculine and feminine; as (pvyds, (fivydSos, 
fugitive ; aVat?, airaibos, childless ; dyvd>s, dyvcoros, unknown ; avaXwy 
dvdXicidos, weak. The oblique cases occasionally occur as neuter. 

A very few adjectives of one termination are of the first declension, 
ending in ay or ns ; as ycwd&as, noble, gen. yevvdbov. 



FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS COMBINED. 

§ 67. 1. Most adjectives of this class end in t/?, em, v, 
or in €6?, ecraa, ev. 

Three end in a?^ — 7ra9, 7Tacra, irav, all, declined like 
lards (§ 68), /xe\a?, /neXaiva, [MeXav, black, and raXas, 
raXatva, raXav, loretched. 

2. TXvkvs, sweet, %api€t$, graceful, and fieXas, black, are 
thus declined : — 

Singular. 



N. 


yXvKvs 


yXvKela 


yXvKv 


G. 


yXvKeo? 


yXvKelas 


yXviceos 


D. 


yXvKe'i yXvKel 


yXvKela 


yXvKe'i yXvKel 


A. 


yXvKvu 


yXvKelav 


yXvw 


V. 


yXvKv 


yXvKela 
Dual. 


yXvKv 


N.A.V. 


yXvKe'c 


yXvKela 


yXvK€€ 


G. D. 


yXvK€OLV 


yXvKtiatP 

Plural. 


yXvKtoiv 


N. V. 


yXvKtes yXvAcelf 


yXvK€?ai 


yXvKta 


G. 


yXvK€cov 


yXvKfLWU 


yhvKt&v 


D. 


yXvKecrc 


yXvKeiats 


yXvKtac 


A. 


yXvKe'rs y\vK(~is 


yXvKelas 


yXvKca 



§ 68.] ADJECTIVES. — FIKST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. 43 



Singular. 



N. %apUis xapiecrcra x a P l€V 

G. xapUvTos x a P l * (T<Tr }S x a P^ €VT0S 

D. x a P L * VTl X a P t€<70 77 X a P lcVTl 

A. x a P l * VTa X a P^ (J(Tav X a P l€V 

V. x a pi* v x a p' l * <T(Ta X a P i€V 



fxcXas pkXaiva ptXav 
peXavos peXaiurjs peXavos 
fxe Xavi pcXalvrj pi Xavi 
fieXava peXaivav pcXav 
pkXav peXaiva peXau 



Dual. 

N. A. V. x a P L * VT€ X a P L * (TO ' a X a P^ epT€ fii\av€ peXaiva peXave 

G. D. x a P L * VT0LV X a P l * (T(Taiv X a P l * PT0LV ptXdvoiv peXaluatv peXdvoiv 



Plural. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



plXaves peXawcu ptXava 

peXdvcou jXiXatvcov peXdvoov 

ptXacrt. peXalvais psXacn 

peXavas peXaivas peXava 

[xeXaves peXaivai peXava 



XapicvTcs x a P L€(ra ' at X a P l€VTa 

XapievTcov ^apieo-ow x a P L * VTC0V 

Xapieat xapi€<r<rats' X a P u<Tl 

XoplevTas x a P l * <T(Tas X a P L€VTa 

XapicvTcs x a pi- €(T(Tai X a P^ €VTa 

For the feminine of yXvKvs and peXas, see § 108, 4, Note. 

Note 1. The Ionic feminine of adjectives in vs ends in ea or crj. 
For the dative plural of adjectives in «y, see § 16, 5, Note 2. 

Note 2. Adjectives in rjeis, r)€<r<ra, fj«/, contract these endings to 
jj$, rjcrcra, r\v ; and those in oeis, oecro-a, oev, contract these endings to 
oOy, ovcrcra, ovv\ as nprjeis, npr)€cr(ra, Tipjjev, — Tipfjs, Tiprjcr<ra, nprjv, — 
valuable ; gen. ripfevTos, TLprjiacrTjs, — riprjvTos, Ttprjo-arjs, &c. So 
TrXaKoas, nXciKoco-aa, TrXctKoev, — 7rXaKovs, 7rXaKovcro-a, tiXcikovv, — fiat : 
gen. nXciKoevTos, 7vXaKO€(rcn]s, — irXaKovvros, 7rXaKovcrcrri$. 

Note 3. One adjective in rjv, — reprjv, repciva, repev, tender (Latin 
tener), gen. repevos, repeiprjs, repei/o?, &c, — is declined after the anal- 
ogy of jLte'Xay. So apo-rjv (or apprjv), cipcrev, male, gen. apcrcvos, which 
has no feminine. 

§ 68. To this class belong all active and all aorist pas- 
sive participles. Avcov, loosing, lards, erecting, Tt9el<$, 
placing, Bet,tcvvs, showing, — present active participles of 
\vco, lctttj/jli,, TiOrjfjLL, and Seifcvvfii, — and XeXv/ccos, hav- 
ing loosed, — perfect active participle of Xvu), — are thus 
declined : — 



44 



INFLECTION. 



1168. 



Singular. 



N. Xvcov Xvovo-a Xvov 

G. XvOVTOS XvOVVT]? XvOVTOS 

D. XvOVTl XvOVar} XvOVTC 

A. Xvovra Xvovaav Xvov 

V. Xvcov Xvovaa Xvov 



terras 


icrracra 


tarav 


[(TTCLVTO? 


lardcrrjs 


lardvros 


lOTaVTl 


lardajj 


lardvn 


lardvra 


larda-av 


iardv 


terras 


icrraaa 


iardv 



Dual. 

N. A. V. Xvovre Xvovo-a Xvovre 
G. D. Xvovroiv Xvov&aiv Xvovroiv 



eordcra lordvre 



icrravre 

ivravrotv larda'aiv lardvroiv 



Plural. 

N. V. Xvovres Xvovcrat Xvovra 

G. XvovTav Xvovaccv Xvovrcov 

J). Xvovcri Xvovo'ais Xvovat 

A. Xvovras Xvovaas Xvovra 



iordvres iorao-ai laravra 



lo-ravroDV laraa'cov laravrcov 



icrrao'i 



to-rao-ais laram 



laravras taraaas taravra 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



Singular. 



0€iKvv$ beiKWO'a ocikvvv 

SeiKvvvros deuevvarjs deiicvvvros 

SeiKvvvn deuevva-rj deiKvvvn 

deuevvvra beiKVvo-av deuevvv 

deiKvvs heiKvvo-a deuevvv 



TiGcls riQeia-a riBev 

nQkvros riOeio-rjs nOevros 

riQkvn riOelcrr) riOkvri 

nBkvra riOclo-av riOkv 

riOeis riBelaa riOkv 



Dual. 

N. A. V. hciKvvvre dciKvvo-a beiKvvvre riOkvrt riBelara rtOkvrc 
G. D. dciKvvvroiv dcLKvvaaiv BeiKvvvrotv nQkvroiv riQtiaaiv ridhrow 



Plural. 

N. V. SeiKvvvrcs $€tKvvcrai htiKvvvra riOkvres riOiiaai riBivra 

G. deiKvvvrav deiKwcruv deiKvvvrav rtdkvra>v riBeiaaiv riOevrw 

D. deiKvvai deiKvvo-ais deucvvai riOelcri riOeio-ais ti&icti 

A. oeuevvvras SciKvvaas oetKVvvra nBkvras ric^eicray ridkvra 



a <59. 



ADJECTIVES. 



FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. 



45 



N. 


AeXvKcos 


G. 


XcXvkotos 


D. 


XcXvkoti 


A. 


XfXvKora 


V. 


XcXvkqds 


N.A.V. 


XcXvKOTf 


G. D. 


XcXvkotoiv 


N. V. 


XeXv/cores 


G. 


XcXvkotcdu 


D. 


XeXvKoai 


A. 


XeXvKoras 



Singular. 
XeXvKvla 
XeXvKvias 
XcXvKvta 
XeXuKvIav 
XeXvKuia 

Dual. 

XikvKvia 
XeXvKviatv 

Plural. 

XcXvicvlai 
XcXvkvicou 
XeXvKvlcus 
XeXvKvias 



XcXvkos 

XcXvkotos 

XcXvkoti 

XcXvkos 

XcXvkos 



XcXvkotc 

XcXvKOTOlV 



XfXvKOTd 

XeXvKorayv 

XcXvKocri 

XeXvKora 



Note. All participles in <ov are declined like Xvoav. Participles in 
ovs are declined like Xveov, except in the nominative and vocative sin- 
gular; as diftovs, Sidovcra, &SoV, giving; gen. dMvros, dtdovo-rjs ; dat. 
didom, didovo-y, &c. Aorist active participles in ay are declined like 
lards ; as Xi/o-ar, Xvcracra, Xvaav, having loosed; gen. Xvcrai/ro?, Xvo-do-^s': 
dat. Xvortprt, Xvado-rj, &c. Aorist passive participles in eis are declined 
like TiBeis] as Xvdeis, XvOeicra, XvBiv, loosed; gen. XvOevros, XvOciotjs] 
d&t. XvOevri, Xv0€L<ry, &c. When the accent differs from that of the 
'paradigm, it follows the general principle (§ 25, 1). See § 119, Note. 

§ 69. Participles in dav, e'cov, and oW are contracted. 
Tifidcov, TifjLwi/, honoring, and (frCXecov, <f)i\£>v 9 loving, are 
declined as follows : — 



JN . TlfJLa(t)V TlfXCOV 

G. TLfiaOVTOS TlfXCOVTOS 

D. TIJJidoVTL TlfXCDVTl 

A. rtfidovra TLfjccovra 

V. Tlfld&V TlfJL&V 



N. TlfldoVT€ TLfl(DVT€ 
Gr. TlfJLaOVTOW TlUQiVTOlV 



Singular. 
TifMaovaa rifxcoaa 

TlfXaOVO-TJS TlflU)0*7]S 

Tifiaovarj tijjlqoo'tj 
Tifxdov(rav Tifxcocrav 
Tifxdov(ra TipSxra 

Dual 

Tifxaovcra Tipaxra 
Tifiaovaaiv TifjLoxruiv 



Tifxaov ti/xcdj/ 

TlfiaOVTOS TlfltoVTOS 

TlfiaOVTl TlfX(OVTt 

TlfldoV Tl\ltoV 

TipaOV TtfJLG)V 



TifiaouTe Tificovre 

TlfiaOPTOlP TlfAUVTOlV 



46 



INFLECTION. 



§ 70. 



IT. TlfXaOVT€S Tl[lCOl>T€S 

G. TlfJLaOPTCOU TLfJLGdVTCDV 

D. TlfJ.aOV(TL TLflCOai 

A. rifidovras ti/jlcovtcis 

V. TifJLaovres rifxcovres 



Plural. 

TLjidovcrai n/icocrat 

Tifiaovcrcov TiyL&crwv 

Tt/xaot'crai? Tifiaxrais 

rtfiaovaas rt/xwcras 

Tifidovacu TLfJLOOCrCU 



Tifiaovra rificovra 

TlfAClOVTCtiV TlfJLOOVTCQV 

TljiaOV(Tl TlflGOai 

TijidovTa TLfMavra 

TLfiaOVTCL TlftCOVTa 



N. (piXecov (fiikcov 

G. (plXeOVTOS (ptkovVTOS 

D. (pikeOVTl <pL\0VVTL 

A. (fiiXeovra (piXovvra 

V. (piXecov (J)l\g>v 



Singular. 

(fiiXtovcra (pcXovcra 

<fiik€Ov<jr)s (f)i\ov(rr]S 

(fiikeovcTT] (ptXovcrrj 

(f)ikeovcrav (piXovaav 

(fitXeovcra (pikovcra 

Dual. 



(fiiXeov (f)iXovv 

(fiiXeovTOs (j)iXovwov 

cjyiXeovTL tyCXovvTi 

(piXeov (JilXovv 

(fiiXeov (f)iXovv 



ZS. (j)iXeovT€ (f)iXovvT€ (piXcovcra tyiXovcra <j)iXeovT€ (J)lXovvt€ 
G. cfriXcovTOLv <j)iXovv7oiv (piXeovaaw (\)ikov(iaiv (ptXeovTotP (^CKovvtolv 

Plural. 

N. (fitXeovTes (fiiXovvTcs tyCXiovaai cj)iXovcrai (^CKiovra cf)iXovvra 

G. (friXeovTGdu (j)iXovvT(DV (j)iX€ovcrcov (fiiXovcrcDV tyiXtovTcov cpiXovvrcov 

D. (fiiXeovcTL cj)iXov(Tt (fiiXeovcrais (fiiXovcrais (piXeovcn (piXovat 

A. (friXeovras (friXovvras (fciXeovo-as (friXovaas (piXeovra (friXovvra 

V. <j)(\€ovT€s (filXovvTes <£tXeovo-at (friXovcrai (fiiXeovTa (piXovvra 

The present participles of verbs in do> (contracted £>) are de- 
clined in their contracted form like (friXcov, the contracted form 
of cfriXicDv. Thus drjXcov, drjXoixTa, drjXovp, manifesting ; gen. fyXovp- 
tos, drjXovarjs ; dat. dr)Xovi>Ti, S7/A0O077, &c. The uncontracted form 
of verbs in do> is not used. 

Xote. A few second perfect participles in am and eas have axra in 
the feminine, and retain co in the oblique cases; as renews, redve&cra, 
TtOveos, dead ; gen. TeOvecoros, Tcdvccoo-qs, &c. Those in ados are con- 
tracted in Attic ; as tcrraco?, io-racocra, ecrraos, contr. icrrdos, eorcoo-a, 
iaros (irregular for eVrcos) ; gen. ia-rcoros, iaroxrrfs, Szc. (See § 130.) 

§ 70. The most important irregular adjectives are /jueyas, 
great, and ttoXu?, much, which are thus declined : — 



§71.] 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



47 



Singular. 
N. peyag peydXrj pkya 

*G. peydXov peydXrjs peydXov 

D. fxeyakco peydXrj peydXco 

A. pkyav peydXrjv pkya 

V. peydXe peydXrj pkya 

Dual. 
N. A. V. fieyaXco peydXa peydXco 
G. D. peydXoiv [xeydXaiv ptydXoiv 

Plural. 
N. V. /zeyaXot /xeyaXat /xeyaXa 
G. fxcyaXcov peydXcov fieyakcov 

D. fjLeydXois peydXais peydXois 

A. /ueyaXovs peyaXas peydXa 



7ToXi;S 7ToXXj7 TToXu 

7ToXXoO 7ToXXt]S 7ToXXoO 

TToXXcG TToXXfj 7ToXXw 

TToXvV TToXXrjV 7ToXv 



Wanting. 



7roXXot 7roXXai 7roXXd 

TToXXcOU TToXXcOU 7ToXXcDV 

7ToXX o7s noXX ais ttoXX o 1 ? 

TTOXXOVS TfoXXds 7ToXXd 



Most of the forms of these adjectives are derived from stems in o, 
fieyaXo- and 7roXXo-. HoXXos, f), 6v, is found in Homer and Herodotus, 
declined regularly throughout. In Homer, 7roXvs has forms 7roXeo$, 
TroXees, 7roXea)v, &c, which must not be confounded with Epic forms 
of tt6Xls (§ 59). 

Note. Updos (or irpqos), mild, forms its feminine like an adjective 
in vs] as irpaeia, npaeias, irpaelq, &c. The masculine and neuter 
plural have forms in eis, ea, &c, like those of yXvKvs, as well as the 
regular forms in oi, &c. 

COMPAKISOK OF ADJECTIVES. 

I. Comparison by -T€pos -to,tos. 

§ 71. Most adjectives add repo? to the stem to form the 
comparative, and t<zto? to form the superlative. Stems 
in o with a short penult change o to w before repo? and 
Taro?. E. g. 

Kov<pos (kov^o-), light, Kov(p6r€pos, lighter, kov^otcltos, lightest. 
2o(j)6s ((ro<po-), wise, (rocfiooTepos, wiser, aocpoyraros, wisest, 
^epvos (crepvo-), august, aepvorepos, crepvoraTos* 
UiKpos (jriKpo^), bitter, rriKporepos, 7riKpoTaTos* 
0£u? (6£v-), sharp, 6£vr€pos, o^vraros. 
MeXas (peXav-), black, peXdvrepos, peXdvraros. 
'AXrjOfjs (dXrjOeo--), true, dX-qBearepos^ dXriSicrTaros. (§ 52, 1.) 



48 INFLECTION. [§ 72. 

Note 1. Stems in o do not lengthen o to ca if the penultimate 
vowel is followed by a mute and a liquid (19, 3). See triKpos, above. 

Note 2. Mecros, middle, and a few others drop os and add airepos 
and aircLTos ; as /jlcctos, p,€o-aiTepos, pecraiTaros ; 1'Stos, Idialrepos, Idiai- 
raroS' 

Note 3. Adjectives in 009 drop os and add eo-repos and eo-raros, 
which are contracted with o to ovarepos and o^;aTaros , ; as evvoos, well- 
disjjosed, evvovcrrepos, evvovararos. 

Note 4. Adjectives in coy add earepos and eararos to the stem ; as 
crcoc^pcoz/ (a cocjypov-), prudent, o-ccxppoveaTepos, Goa^povicrTaTOs. 

Note 5. Adjectives in ets change final evr- of the stem to eo-, and 
add repos and raros; as ^apieis (xapievr-), graceful, ^apie'crrepos, X a P l *~ 
araTos. 

U. Comparison by -i«v, -icttos. 

§ 72. 1. Some adjectives in u? and po? are compared 
by changing these endings to ccov and mttos. E. g. 

'HSus, sweet, rjblcov, fjbio-ros. 

Taxvs, swift, rax^v (commonly Odacrcov) , t6,xi<ttos> 

Al&xpos, base, alcrx^v, attr^to-roy. 

'Expo's, hostile, €\0iccv, exBicrros. 

Kvbpos, glorious, Kvdicov, Kvbio-ros. 

Some adjectives have both icov, io-tos, and repos, tcltos. 

2. Comparatives in Icov, neuter lop, are thus declined : — 
Singular. Dual. 

N. r)di(ov rjbiov 

G. rjoiovos N. A. Y. rjbiove 

D. r)blOVl G. D. r)biovoiv 

A. rjblova rjbico rjbiov 

V. fjblcov rjbiov 

Plural. 

N. V. fjbloves rjblovs rjbiova rjbico 

G. r)biovcov 

D. rjdloo'i 

A. rjbtovas r)blovs rjbiova rjbica 

The terminations -01/a, -oj>ey, and -oray drop *>, and are contracted 
into -co and -ovs. (See § 56, 2, Note.) 



§73.] 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



49 



III. Irregular Comparison. 

§ 73. 1. The following are the most important cases of 
irregular comparison : — 

1. dyaOos, good, dfielvcov, 

dpelcov (Horn.), 

Kp€La(T(OV Or KpeiTTCOV, 

(freprepos, 
Xaicov, Xcocov, 

2. Kaicds, bad, Kaid(du, 

rjaa-ayu or fjrra>v (§ 108, 4, N.), 

3. Kakosj beautiful, koXXlcdv, 

4. ixeyas, great, .p€ifav (Hdt. pifav), 

5. [wcpos, small, iuKp6rcpos, 

iXdaacou or IXdrrcov, 

fl€l(OV 

6. oXiyos, little, few, 

iXdacmv or iXdrrav, 

7. 7T€vrjf, poor, irevetTTcpos, 

8. noXvs, much, ttXciW or 7rXeo)i/, 

9. padios, easy, paoiv, 

10. ra\vs, swift, Od&arwv (for ra^itov, §108,4, N.), rd^toroy. 

11. (piXos, dear, (piXrcpos, (frLXraros* 

Note. Irregularities in the comparison of the following words 
will be found in the Lexicon : — 

al(rxpdfi dXyeivos, apiraf;, a(j)0ovos, axapis, ftaOvs, f3Xd£ , fipahvs, yepaios, 
yXvicvs, €7rtX^cr/ia)i/, iiri\apK y fj<rvxo$, pdicap, p.aicp6s, p.€(ros, veos, oXiyos, 
7raXaios, Tragus, ireiraiv, iricov, ir\rj(rios, 7rp€ar$vs, irpovpyov y cnrovdaios, 
axoXaios, (f)iXos, yj/evbrjs, u>kvs. 

2. Some comparatives and superlatives have no positive, but 
their stem generally appears in an adverb or preposition. E. g. 

'Avojrepos, upper, dvayrarosj uppermost, from au<o, up : 7rpoYepoff, for- 
mer y npuiTos or 7rpamoTor, first, from irpo, before ; Karvrepos, lower, 
KarvrciTos, lowest, from Kara, downward, 
3 



apiiTTOs, 
j3< Xtkttos, 

KpaTHTTOS, 

(pepraTos, (jiepiaros, 
Xqdmttos, Xaioros. 

KaKtarros, 
XeipHTTO?, 

fJKio-Tos (rare). 

Ka.XXl<TTOS* 

fxiyiaros* 

fJLlKpOTClTOS, 
iXaXKTTOS, 

pciaTos (Poetic). 

oXi'yioTOf, 
c'Xd^toTor. 

7T€P€OTaTOS. 
7rX €1(770 f. 

pao-ros. 



50 INFLECTION. [§74. 

See also in the Lexicon dyxdrepos, dcfrdprepo?, Kepbicov, onXdrcpos, 
Trpocrcorepo?, plytov .(neuter), vneprepos, varepos, 1\J/lcov, (padprepos, with 
their regular superlatives ; also eo-^aros' and KrjdicrTos. 

3. Comparatives and superlatives may be formed from nouns, 
and even from pronouns. E. g. 

BacnXevs, king. ftacrikevTepos, a greater king, fiao-CXtvTaTos, the greatest 
Icing, KXeVr?;?, thief] KX€7rTio'Tepos, KXe7TTLCTTaTOs ; kvcop, dog ) Kvvrepos, 
more impudent, Kvpraros, most impudent. So avros, self] avToraros, 
his very self, ipsissimus. 

ADVERBS AND THEIR COMPARISON. 

§ 74. 1. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives. 
Their form (including the accent) is found by changing v 
of the genitive plural masculine to 9. E. g. 

$i\cDS, dearly, from <f)iXos; SikguW, justly, from dUatos; (ro^as, 
wisely, from o~o<fios ; fjdecos, sweetly, from fjdvs (gen. plur. fjbecov) ; 
dXnticos, truly, from dXrjBrjs (gen. plur. dXrjSecov, dXrjOav) ; (rcKpcos (Ionic 
(ra(f)€(os), plainly, from acufirjs (gen. plur. acKpecov, o~a(p(oi>) ; navTcos, 
wholly, from nds (gen. plur. namcou). 

2. The neuter accusative of an adjective (either singular 
or plural) may be used as an adverb. E. g. 

IloXv and noXXd, much, from noXvs; fieya or fieydXa, greatly, from 

fie'ya? (also fieydXats, § 74, 1) ; fiovov, only, from fxovos, alone* 

Note. Other forms of adverbs with various terminations will be 
learned by practice. 

§ 75. The neuter accusative singular of the comparative 
of an adjective forms the comparative of the corresponding 
adverb ; and the neuter accusative plural of the superlative 
forms the superlative of the adverb. E. g. 

2o0o)9 (from crowds), wisely ; vofycoTepov, more wisely ; (ro(f)a)TaTa, most 
ivisely. 'AXrjBcos (from dXrjSrjs), truly; dX^Oearepop, dX^dco-raTa. f H§«o? 
(from Tjdvs), sweetly, rjdiop, rjdivTa. XapuvTcos (from xapiW), gracefully ; 
Xapteo-repov. ^apie'crrora. "Scocppopcos (from aoxppcop) , prudently ; o~co(f)pop€- 
(TTepov, (Toxfipoveo-TdTa. 

"Note 1. Other adverbs generally form a comparative in repay, and 
a superlative in rarcu; as apca, above; dpcorepcc, aj/wrarco. 



§76.] 



NUMERALS. 



51 



A few comparatives end in rcpcos ; as fie paic-re peas, more firmly, from 

Note 2. Some adverbs are irregular in their comparison ; as \iaka, 
much, very, fiaWov (for fxakiov), more, rather, /mXiora, most, especially. 



NUMERALS. 

§ 76. The most important numerals are the cardinal 
and ordinal numeral adjectives, and the numeral adverbs. 
These are here given : — 





Sign. 


Cardinal. 


Ordinal. 


Adverb. 


1 


a 


cis, n'ia, ev, one 


wpcoTos, first 


a7raf, once 


2 


P 


dvo, two 


devrepos, second. 


bis, twice 


3 


y 


rpety, rpla 


rpiros 


TpLS 


4 


fr 


Tiacrapes, rkvo-apa 


rirapros 


T€TpCLKlS 


5 


€ 


7T€VT€ 


irep.7TTos 


TT€VTaK.l$ 


6 





« 


€KTOS 


i^CLKlS 


7 


c 


€7TTa 


cftdofios 


inrduLS 


8 


V 


OKTG) 


oyftoos 


OKTO.KLS 


9 


3' 


ivvia 


%varos 


ivCLKLS 


10 


I 


deKa 


btKaros 


ttKCLKlS 


11 


ia 


evftena 


€V&€KClTOS 


ivhcKCLKLS 


12 


tf 


Sa>£eKa 


bcodeKaros 


dcodeKaKis 


13 




rpiaKaldcKa 


TplO-KClldeKdTOS 


* 


14 


# 


reo-o-apeo-KciibeKa 


T€0~o~apaKatd€KciTos 




15 



(6 


TrevT€KaideKa 


7T€VT€KClld€KaTO S 




16 




is- 


CKKaiSeKa 


eKKaibeKaros 




17 


*' 


iTTTaicaibtKa 


€7TTaKai8eKaTOS 




18 


■/ 


OKTtoKCLlbcKa 


OKTCOKaiSeKClTOS 




19 


t3' 


ivveaKalbeKa 


ivveaKdibeKaTOS 




20 


K 


€lKO(Tfc 


cIkootos 


CIKOO'CIKIS 


21 


KCL 


€4? Acal eiKOfri 
or ctjcocrt eis 


7rp(OTOs Kal cIkoo'tos 




30 


X' 


Tpia/coi/ra 


TpiaKOVTOS 


TpiaKovrdicis 


40 


/*' 


rea-aapaKopra 


Teo-o~apaKooTos 


reaaapaKovTaKLS 


50 


t 
V 


7T€urr)KOjrra 


7T€VT7]KO(rr6s 


1T€VTr}KOVTaKVS 


60 


r 


££r]KOVTa 


€^7JKO(Tt6s 


if-nKovraias 


70 





£(38op.r}KOVTa 


i^dofXTJKOO'TOS 


€(38op.7]KOVTaKlS 


80 


/ 
7T 


oydorjKOVTa 


oydorjKoaros 


SySonKovraKis 


90 


? 


€V€VT)KOVTO. 


iveisrjKOCTTOS 


€V€V7]KOirrdKLS 


100 


i 


CKCLTOV 


CAcaroorop 


CKaTOVTCLKLS 


200 


■ 

cr 


SidKoaioi, at, a 


diaKoaio(TT6s 


diaKocriaKis 



V2 




INFLECTION. 


300 


r' 


TpiaKoa-ioi, at, a 


rpiaKoa-Loaros 


400 




V 


T€TpOKO(TlOl, at, a 


T€Tpa.KO(TlO(TT6$ 


500 


# 


7r€VTaKO(Tio(. y at, a 


7T€VTCLKO(nO(TT6s 


600 


t. 
X 


e^a^oa-tot, at, a 


e^cLKOcrioaTos 


700 


*' 


67rra/coa-iot, at, a 


€7rraAcoo"too"roy 


800 


(0 


6k.tclk6o~i.oi, at, a 


o/craKOcrtoaros 


900 


m 


ivCLKOOLOL, O.L, a 


evaKooricxTTos 


1000 


a 


^tXtot, at, a 


^tXtooros 


2000 


A 


Sta^tXtot, at, a 


cW^tXiooroy 


3000 


y 


rpLo-xiXioi, at, a 


T-pta-xtXtoordr 


.0000 


/ 


(Jivptot) at, a 


flVplOCTTOS 



[§77. 



XiXtaKts' 



ftvpiaKis 

Note. The dialects have the following peculiar forms : — 

1-4. See § 77, 1, Note 1. Epic Tpiraros, Terparos. 

12. Doric and Ionic 8vd>beKa ; Poetic dvoKaideica. 

20. Epic €€iKo<ri ; Doric eucare. 

30, 80, 200, 300. Ionic TptrjKovra, oyb&Kovra, dirjicocrioi, rpirjicocrtoi. 

40. Herod. Teo-aeprjKovTa. 

§ 77. 1. The cardinal numbers eh, one, 8vo, two, rpel^ 
three, and reaaapes (or TeVrape?), /<ww, are thus de- 
clined : — 



N. 


T 

€tff 


fit a 


G. 




ptas 


D. 


kvi 


piq 


A. 


eya 


fMtav 


N. 


rpels 


rpia 


G. 




rpiciov 


D. 




rpiat 


A. 


Tp€~lS 


rpia 



€V 



€VOS 



CW 



€V 



N. A. 
G. D. 



tfo 



Su 



ot*> 



Tecra-apes reacrapa 

T€<TO"dp<OV 
rk(T(TOp(Tl 

Tevaapas T€<r<rapa 

Note 1. Homer has -fern, ta, trjs, &a, for /xt'a; and to> for ew. 
Homer has dvco for Suo, and forms Sota>, dotot (declined regularly). 
For §v(0P, Suoto-t, and other forms, see the Lexicon. &vo is sometimes 
indeclinable. 

Herodotus has Tecro-epes, and the poets have rerpao-t. 

Note 2. The compounds of ch — ovBeis and prjBels, no one, none 
— are declined like ctr. Thus, ovdcls, ovdepla, ovdev; gen. ovdevos, 
ovdep,Las ; dat. ov^c vl, ovdcpiy ; &c. When ovde or ^uySc is separated 



§ 78.] THE APwTICLE. 53 

from el? (by a preposition or by aV), the negative is more emphatic; 
as e£ ovbevos, from no one; ott? e£ ev6s,from not even one. 

Note 3. Both is expressed by aficpco, amho, dpc^olv, and by dpcfro- 
rcpos, generally plural, dfKpoTepot, at, a. 

2. The cardinal numbers from 5 to 100 are indeclinable. 
The higher numbers in tot and all the ordinals are declined 
regularly like other adjectives in os. 

Note 1. When Tpels /cat Se/ca and Tea crapes /cat de<a are used for 13 
and 14, the first part is declined. In ordinals we may say rplros koL 

dtKCLTOS, &C. 

Note 2. In compound expressions like 21, 22, &c., 31, 32, &c, 
121, 122, &c, the numbers can be connected by /cat in either order; 
but if /cat is omitted, the larger precedes. Thus, els /cat eUoo-i, one and 
twenty, or et/coa-t /cat els, twenty and one ; but (without /cat) only e?Ko<ri 
els, twenty-one. 

Note 3. Mvpioi means ten thousand, while ixvpioi means innumera- 
ble. We find even fivplos, countless. 

Note 4. Numbers are usually expressed by letters ; the two obso- 
lete letters, Vau and Koppa, and the character San, denoting 6, 90, 
and 900. (See § 1, Note 2.) The last letter in a numerical expression 
has an accent above. Thousands begin anew with a, with a stroke 
below. Thus, jaotf, 1868; ,/%/ce, 2625; ,S/c€, 4025 ; ' fiy , 2003; <j>p', 
540; pS', 104. 

The letters of the ordinary Greek alphabet are used to number the 
books of the Iliad and Odyssey, each poem having twenty-four. 

THE AETICLE. 

§ 78. The definite article 6, the (stem to-), is thus de- 
clined : — 



Singular. 



N. 


e 
O 


i 


t 
TO 


G. 


TOV 


TTJS 


TOV 


D. 


TO) 

i 


r fl 


Tat 

i 


A. 


f 

TOV 


TT\V 


t 

TO 



Plural. 



Dual. 

N. A. T(D TO, TO) 
G. D. TOLV TOLV Tolv 



Note 1. The Greek has no indefinite article ; but often the indefi- 
nite Tis (§ 84) may be translated by a or an; as avOpowros tls, a cer- 
tain man, often simply a man. 



N. 


r t 

oi ai 


TO. 


G. 


TCDV 




D. 


TOlff Tats 


Tols 


A. 


TOVS TQS 


TO, 



54 



INFLECTION. 



[§79. 



Note 2. The feminine dual rd is rare, and to is generally used 
for all genders. (§ 138, Note 5.) The regular nominatives tol and 
rat are Epic and Doric ; and the article has the usual dialectic forms 
of the first and second declensions, as rolo, to1lv 1 raw, toicti. rfjcn, rfjs. 



PEONOUIS. 

Personal and Intensive Pronouns. 

The personal pronouns are ejco 



§ 79. 1. The personal pronouns are eyco, I, crv, thou, 
and ov (genitive), of him, of her, of it. Avtos, himself, &c. 
is used as a personal pronoun for him, her, it, in the 
oblique cases, but never in the nominative. They are thus 
declined : — 

Singular. 



N. 


iycj 




f 
CTV 


— 




civtos 


avrr) 


» * 
avro 


G. 


€flOV, 


flOV 


crov 


0$ 




avTov 


avrrjs 


avrov 


D. 


ifxol, 


flOL 


CTOL 


OL 




CLVTCD 


amr} 


aVT(d 

t 


A. 


e/*e, fie 








avrov 


avrrjv 


auro 










Dual. 










N.A. 


VG) 




(T(f)(i> 


(<r<fi(De) 




CIVTG) 


avra 


avToa 


G. D. 


pcov 




(T(j)(pV 


( a<pQi) tv) 
Plural. 




avrolv 


avralv 


aviolv 


N. 


f)fJL€?S 




V/Atls 


(nfitls ((70ea) 


avTol 


avrai 


avrd 


G. 


TjflCOU 




VjXKOV 


(T<f)G)V 




avTcov 


avroav 


avrav 


D. 


Tjfxlu 




VfUV 


(T<pl(Tl 




avTots 


clvtcus 


aVTOLS 


A. 


rjixas 




Vfjias 


(T<pas (cr(j)ea) 


avrovs 


avrds 


avrd 



2(/>oe, (T(ficotv, and the neuter a<fiea are not used in Attic prose. 

Note 1. Avros in the nominative of all numbers, and when it is 
an adjective pronoun in the oblique cases, is intensive, like the Latin 
ipse. (See § 145.) For the uses of o£, see § 144, 2. 

Note 2. The following is the Ionic declension of eyd>, (tv ) and ov. 
The forms in ( ) are not used by Herodotus. 

iyw (iywv) <rv (rvvrj) 

€/jl€u, fxev, from e/xeo aeo, (rev (eo) e5 

(e/ieio, ijxedev) (crelo, aeQeu) (efo, Wev) 

D. i/uLoi, /j.ol aoi, rot (reiV) ol (eoi) 

A. 4/xi,fi4 c4 e(e^) 



Sing. N". 
G. 



80.] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 55 



wit N. A. {yw'Cy va) 


(a<j>aC, <r<f>d)) 


(<r<pa£) 


G. D. (v&Cv) 


(a<pd'0, <r<p<jyS) 


((T<£anV) 


ur. N. V e ' s (a/x^es) 


vpLets (v/J<fJL€s) 




G. 7i<JL€(*)i> (rjjuLelav) 


v^eojv (v[xduv) 


afykwv (cr<p€LU)p) 


D. 4w2r (dfifit) 


VJMV (vflfJu) 


(T(f>L(Ti 9 <r<pL 


A. fyxeas (a/^e) 


v^eas (v^e) 


<r<peas (crcpe'ias), cr0e 



Herodotus has also cruets- and o-qbea in the plural of the third per- 
son, which are not found in Homer. 

2(j>€ is used as both singular and plural, Mm, her, it, them, by the 
tragedians. 

The tragedians use the Doric accusative viv as a personal pronoun 
in all genders, and in both singular and plural. The Ionic form piv 
is used in all genders, but only in the singular. 

The poets sometimes shorten the final syllable of rjfuv, rjfxas, vfilv, 
vpds, and afyas, changing the circumflex to the acute ; and sometimes 
accenting fjfj.iv, ?//xa?, &c. 

The Ionic sometimes inserts € before long terminations of avros, as 
avT€cov. It contracts 6 avros into avros or avros, and ro aiiro into 
ravro (§ 3). 

2. Avtos preceded by the article means the same; as 
o auro? avrfp, the same man ; tov clvtov iroXefiov, the same 
war. (See § 142, 4, Note 2.) 

Note. Autos is often contracted with the article ; as ravrov for toO 
atrov ; ravra for ra avra ; ravrrj for rfj avrfj (not to be confounded 
with ravrrj from ovros). In the contract form the neuter singular has 
ravro or ravrov. 

Reflexive Pronouns. 

§ 80. The reflexive pronouns are ifiavTov, e/jLavTrjs, 
of myself, aeavrov, o-eavrf]?, of thyself and eavrov, eavrrjs, 
of himself herself itself They are thus declined : — 









Singular. 


- 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


a. 


ifiavrov 


CfjLavrrjs 


acavrov or aavrov 


ccavrrjs or aavrr)s 


D. 


ifxavra 


ijiavrrj 


aeavra or cavra 


aeavrff or cavrfj 


A. 


epavrov 


efxavrrjv 


creavrov or aavrov 
Plural. 


creavrrjv or aavrrjv 


a. 


Tjfxav 


avrav 


vpav 


avrav 


D. 


fjfiiv avrols 


rjfuv avrais 


vfxlv avrols 


vfjuv avrais 



A. r)[ias avrovs r)fj.as avrds vfias avrovs vjias avrds 



vv 


Singular. 


lxNriji^^ll\JIM. 


Plural 


IS o. 


G. 


iavrov 


iavrrjs 


iavrov 


iavrtov 




D. 


iavrco 


iavrfj 


iavr<o iavrols • 


iavrats 


iavrots 


A. 


iavrov 


iavrqv 


iavro iavrov s 
contracted into 


iavrds 


iavrd 


G. 


avrov 


aVTTjS 


avrov 


avrfov 




D. 


avTco 


avrfj 


avrco avrots 


avrats 


avrots 


A. 


avrov 


aVTTjV 


avro avrovs 


avrds 


avrd 



The contracted forms of iavrov must not be confounded with avrov, 
&c, from avro*. 

Note. The reflexives are compounded of the personal pronouns 
and avrds* These appear separately in the plural of the first and 
second persons, and in Homer in all persons and numbers. Herod- 
otus has ifxeuvrov, accovrov, iwrov. 

Reciprocal Pronoun. 

§ 81. The reciprocal pronoun is aWtjXtQv, of one an- 
other, used only in the dual and plural. It is thus de- 
clined : — 



Dual. 

G. aXXijXotv dXXrjXaiv dXXrjXoiv 

D. dXX^Xoii' dXXrjXaiv dXXrjXoiv 

A. dXXqXa) dXXi^Xa dXX^Xa) 



Plural. 

dXXqXeai/ dXXrjXoov dXXrjXcov 

dXXrjXois dXXrjXais dXXr)Xots 

dXXqXov? aXX^Xas aXX^Xa 



Possessive Pronouns* 

§ 82. The possessive pronouns are e/409, my, cros, thy, o?, 
his; r)fA€T€po<;, our, vfierepos, your, c-<£eTepo? 5 their. They 
are declined like adjectives in o?. 

!Note. Homer has dual possessives vmrepos, of us two, aqyaircpos, 
of you two ; also re 6s (Doric) for ads, ids for or, ap.ds and dp.ds (a) for 
r)fjL€T€pos (in Attic poetry for ip-ds), vp.ds for vpircpos, &<j)ds for a(f}irepos» 
"Ot is not used in Attic prose. 

Demonstrative Pronouns. 

§ 83. The demonstrative pronouns are ovtos and o$€, 
this, and licelvo^ that. They are thus declined : — 



§ 83.'] 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



57 



Singular. 



N. 
G. 
D. 



N. A. 
G. D. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 



OVTOS 



TOVTOV 
TOVTOi 
TOVTOV 



TOVTOi 
TOVTOIV 



avTrj 

TdVT7]S 

TCLVTrj 

TQVTTJV 



Tavra 
Tavraiv 



ovtoi avrai 

TOVTOHV TOVTtoV 

tovtols tclvtciis 

tovtovs TavTas 



TOVTO 
TOVTOV 

TOVTOi 

1 

TOVTO 



Dual. 



TOVTO) 
TOVTOIV 



Plural. 



Tavra 

TOVTCOV 
TOVTOIS 

Tavra 



obc 


fj8e 


Tobe 


to Ode 


TiJcrSe 


Tovde 


TwSe 


rgfc 


Tcode 


Tovde 


Trjvde 


t6$€ 


T&Be 


Tade 


tg>6> 


Tolvde 


Talvbc 


ToXvbe 



olht aide Tade 

Tcovbe Tcovhc Tcovfie 

TolaBe ralcrSe To7ade 

Tovade Tacde raoV 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 



iKitvos 

€K€LVOV 
€K€lVGi 



€K€lVOV 



Singular. 
iK€ivrj 

€K€LVrjS 

€K€tV7J 

€K€LVTJV 



KA, 
G. D. 



€K€LVO 
CK€lVOV 

€K€LVOi 

i 

CK€WO 



NJ 
G. 
D. 
A. 



Dual. 



Plural, 



€K€LVOl €K€lVCll €K€LVa 

€K€tV(OV €K€lV(OV €K€lV(OV 



€K€LVOLS €K€lVatS 
€K€lVOVS €K€LVaS 



CKeivois 



€K€LV<0 



€K€lVOtV 



eiceiva 



€Kfivaiv 



€K(lV(0 
€K€LVOtV 



Note .1. 'EkzIvos is regular except in the neuter «eira. *06V is 
merely the article 6 with the inseparable particle -de added. For 
its accent, see § 28, N. 3. 

Other demonstratives will be found among the pronominal adjec- 
tives <§. 87,-1). - - - - 

Note 2. -The demonstratives, including some adverbs (§ 87, 2), 
may be emphasized by the addition of long /, before which a short 
vowel is dropped. Thus, ovtoo-l, avTtjt, tovtL; 6Si, rjdi toBI: tovtovi, 
tcivti, tovtcjvi] TocrovToal, o>8i, ovTaxri. 

Note 3. The Ionic sometimes inserts e before long terminations 
of ovtos ; as in TpyrJoiv. Homer has roicroVcro-i or roio-oVo-i for Tolcrde. 
The poets have kuvos for iKtivos. 



53 



INFLECTION. 



[§84. 



Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns* 

§ 84. The interrogative pronoun t/?, t/, who ? which ? 
tvhat ? always takes the acute on the first syllable. 

The indefinite pronoun t)^ tI, any one, some one, is en- 
clitic, and its proper accent belongs on the last syllable. 

These pronouns are thus declined : — 





Interrogative. 


N. 


i 

TLS 


G. 


TLVOS, TOV 


D. 


TlVlj TCp 


A. 


Tiva 


N.A. 


TLV€ 


G. D. 


TLVOW 


N. 


TLV€S Tl 


G. 


TLVCDV 


D. 


TLtTl 


A. 


TIMS Tl 



Singular, 



TL 



TL 



Indefinite. 

TWOS, TOV 
TlVl, T<0 



TLVa 



Tl 



Dual. 



Plural 



Tives 



rive 
Tivoiv 



TIVWV 
TLCTL 



Tiva 



TIMS Tiva 

For the indefinite plural Tiva there is a form otto. (Ionic acrcra). 

Note 1. Ovtls and pfjTis, poetic for ovdels and fxrjdeis, no one, are 
declined like w, 

Note 2. The acute accent of tls is never changed to the grave 
(§ 23, 1, Note). The indefinites t\s and t\ seldom occur with an 
accent, as they are enclitic (§ 27). The Ionic has reo and reO for tov, 
Tew for tco, Tccov for tlvcdv, and TcoLo-i for tlo-i ; also the same forms as 
enclitics for tov, to>, &c. 

§ 85. The indefinite Zeiva, such a one, is sometimes in- 
declinable, and is sometimes declined as follows : — 

Singular. Plural. 

delves 
belvonv 



beivat 



N. 


helva 


G. 


helvos 


D. 


S&vi 


A. 


bclva 



§86.] 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



59 



Relative Pronouns. 

§ 86. The relative pronouns are 6?, %, o, who, and oorw, 
rfris, o ti, whoever. They are thus declined : — 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 



Singular. 



rt 

OS 


tf 







T 

ov 


§s 


OV 


N. A. 






T 
CO 

t 


G. D. 



ov 



nv 



Dual. 



CO 



t r * 

olv aiv OLV 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 



Plural. 



OL 


at 


a 


cov 


<ov 


cov 


T 
OLS 


T 

ais 


T 

ois 


tf 

ovs 


tf 

as 


tf 

a 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 



N. A. 



OOTIS 



OVTIVOS, OTOV 
COTIVI. OTCO 



ovriva 



COTLV€ 



Singular, 
rjris 
rjcrnvos 

TJTIVI 

fjvTiva 

Dual, 
arive 



O Tfc 



OVTIVOS, OTOV 

COTLVl, OTCO 

tf 

o rt 



coTive 



G. D. 


olvTIVOLV 


alvTivoiv 
Plural. 


olvTIVOLV 


N. 


drives 


airives 


anva 


G. 


COVTIVCOV, OTCOV 


COVTIVCOV 


COVTIVCOV, 


D. 


olcTTlCTL, OTOICTI 


aiCTTlGl 


otcTTlO-l, 


A. 


ovcrrwas 


acrnvas 


aTiva 



Note 1. "Ooris is compounded of the relative os and the indefinite 
t\s, and is called the indefinite relative. Each part is declined sepa- 
rately. (See § 28, N. 3.) It has a form arret (Ionic acrcra) for ariva 
in the plural, corresponding to arra for riva (§ 84). '"O rt is thus 
written (sometimes o, rt) to distinguish it from ort, that. 

Note 2. Homer has cou, Ins, for ov, fjs. The following are the 
peculiar Homeric forms of ooris : — 



Singular. 



K 


ortff 




O TTL 


a. 




OT€V, OTTCO, OTTCV 




D. 




OT€CO 




A. 


oriva 




O TTL 



Plural. 

OTCCOV 
OT€OlCTl 



oTivas 



acrcra 



acraa 



Herodotus has orev, orccp, orecov, otcoxcti, and acrcra. 



60 



INFLECTION. 



[§87. 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

§ 87. 1- There are many pronominal adjectives which cor- 
respond to each other in form and meaning. The following are 
the most important : — 



Interrogative, 
tt6(tos; how much? 
quantus ? 

irdios ; of vShat 
kind? qualis? 



itijXIkos; how old* 
how large ? 



Indefinite. 
iroaSs, of a cer- 
tain quantity. 



iroi6s, of a cer- 
tain kind. 



wifKLfcos, of a cer- 
tain age or size. 



irdrepos; which of wfrrepos (or irore- 
the two ? pos), one of two 

(rare). 



Demonstrative. 
(t6<tos), To<r6<r6e, 

TOffOVTOS, so 

much, tantus. 

(toios), roidcrde, 
toiovtos, such, 
talis. 

(ttjXIkos), TT)\l- 
Kd<r8e, Tt]\tKov- 
tos, so old or so 
large. 

Zrepos, the one or 
the other (of 
two). 



Relative. 
5<ros, ottojos, as 
much, as many, 
quantus. 

oZbs, oiroios, of 
which kind, 
[such] as, qua- 
ils. 

tjXLkos, otttjXIkos, 
of which age or 
size, [as old] as, 
[as large] as. 

oirdrepos, which- 
. ever of the two. 



The pronouns rls, rii, &c., form a corresponding series : — 
tls, who ? rh, any one. 8de, ovtos, this, 8s, 8<tti$, who, 



this one. 



which. 



Note. T0V09 and roios seldom occur in Attic prose, rrfKUos never. 
Too-o'o"6V, Totocrdc, and tt)\uc6(tc)c are declined like rovo? and roios ; as 
Too-oo-de, Too-rjbe, Tocrovdt, &c, — TotoVoV, roia.be (5), tolovDc. (See § 28, 
N. 3.) Too-ovtos, tolovtos, and ttjXikovtos are declined like olros 
(omitting the first r in tovtov] tovto, &c), except that the neuter sin- 
gular has o or ov] as toiovto?, Toiavrrj, toiovto or toiovtov', gen. rotou- 
tov, Toiavrrjs, &c. 

2. Certain pronominal adverbs correspond like the adjectives 
given above. Such are the following : — 



Interrogative. 
tov; where? 



Try ; which way ? 
how? 



Indefinite. 
7roij, somewhere. 



ir ri, some way, 
some how. 



Demonstrative. 
%vQ&, IvravBa, tKei, 
there. 

(ttJ), rfjde, ratfrtf, 
this way, thus. 



Relative. 
oC, tiirov, where. 

rj, Siry, which 
way, as. .., 



§90.] VERBS. 61 

irol; whitliert irot, to some place, e/ceto-e, thither. ot, Swot, whither. 

wodev ; whence? irodev, from some {t60€v), Zvdev, e/cet- odev, oirddev, 
place. 6ev, tJtence. whence. 

irQs ; Tww ? irws, in some way, ws, tide, oxitujs, thus, rj, Sirrj, in which 

somehow. way, as. 

w6t€ ; when ? wore, at some time, Tore, then. 6're, oirdre, when. 

Note. The indefinite adverbs are all enclitic (§ 27). 

VERBS. 

§ 88. 1. The Greek verb has three voices, the active, 
middle, and passive. 

The middle voice generally signifies that the subject performs 
an action tipon himself or for his own benefit. (See § 199.) 

2. Deponent verbs are those which have no active voice, 
but are used in the middle or passive forms with an active 
sense. 

§ 89. There are five moods, the indicative, subjunctive, 
optative, imperative, and infinitive. To these are added, 
in the conjugation of the verb, participles of all the prin- 
cipal tenses. 

The first four moods, as opposed to the infinitive, are called 
finite moods. 

§ 90. 1. There are seven tenses, the present, imperfect, 
perfect, pluperfect, aorist, future, and future perfect. The 
imperfect and pluperfect are found only in the indicative. 
The future and future perfect are wanting in the subjunc- 
tive and imperative. The future perfect belongs regularly 
to the passive voice. -, 

2. The present, perfect, future, and future- perfect indic- 
ative are called primary tenses ; the imperfect, pluperfect, 
and aorist indicative are called secondary (or historical) 
tenses. 

Note. Many verbs have tenses known as the second aorist (in all 
voices), the second perfect and pluperfect (active), and the second 



62 INFLECTION. [§.91. 

future (passive). Very few verbs have both these and the first (or 
the ordinary) aorist, perfect, &c; and in such cases the two forms 
usually differ in meaning. 

§ 91. There are three 'persons, the first, second, and 
third ; and three numbers (as in nouns), the singular, dual, 
and plural. 

§ 92. The principal parts of a Greek verb are the present, 
future, aorist, and perfect indicative active, and the perfect and 
aorist passive ; as Auo>, to loose, Xiktco, eAixra, Ae'AuKa, Ae'A u/xat, eXvBrju. 

In deponent verbs they are the present, future, perfect, and 
aorist indicative ; as fiovXofiai, to wish, fiovXrjo-oiiai, /BepovXrjfjLai, 

ij3ov\r)6r]v ; ylypojiai, to become, yevrjaofiai, yeyevrjfiai, eyevo^v. So 
€p%ofiai, to go, iXevao^ai, iXr)Xv6a, rjXOov. 

Note. These parts are chosen because they show all the important 
tense-formations, even in an irregular verb. It will be seen from the 
indicative of Xvo> (§ 96), that there is one stem Au- belonging to the 
present and imperfect, which appears (with the prefix Ac-) as AeAv- 
in the perfect passive and middle ; that there is a second form Ay<7- 
belonging to the future active and middle, which appears (with a 
prefix €-) as iXvcr- in the aorist active and middle ; that there is a third 
form AeAi/K- belonging to the perfect and pluperfect active ; and that 
there is a fourth form XvSrj-, which appears in the aorist passive as 
eXvdrj- and in the future passive as \v6r)<r-. These are the four prin- 
cipal tense-stems, of which a complete table is given in § 111. 

§ 93. There are two principal classes of Greek verbs, 
verbs in co, and verbs in /u. 

Note. As most verbs end in g>, many rules are given under verbs 
in a> which apply equally well to those in /n. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN O. 

§ 94. The principal stem of a verb in co is found by 
dropping co of the present indicative active. Those whose 
stem ends in a vowel are called pure verbs ; those whose 
stem ends in a mute are called mute verbs ; those whose 
stem ends in a liquid are called liquid verbs. Thus, <\>t\e-a>, 
Xey-o), areW-co. 

Note. It. often happens, especially in mute and liquid verbs, that 



§ 95.] 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN Q. 



63 



some of the tenses are formed from a stem different from that of the 
present. Thus, in the examples below (§ 96), the stem of Xclttco 
(\evrr-) appears in its two other forms Xi7r- and Xoi7r-, and that of 
otc'XXg) ((rreXA-) in its two forms oreX- and oraX-. (See §§ 108, 109.) 

§ 95. 1. The following synopsis contains all the tenses 
of Xvcd, to loose, with the second aorist active and middle 
and the second perfect and pluperfect active of Xelirco, to 
leave, and the second aorist and second future passive of 



creWco, to send. 



No single verb has all these tenses. 



Indicative. 
Pres. Avw 



Subjunctive. 
Xvo> 



Active Voice. 

Optative. Imperative. Infinitive. 



Imp. 
Fut. 
Aor. 
Perf. 
Plup. 

2 Aor. 
2 Perf. 



£Xvov 

Xv<ro> 

'A.vo-a 

XcXvKa 

cXcXvkciv 

J-Xnrov 
XcXowra 



Xvcrca 
XcXvkco 

Xlttw 

XcXoiTTO) 



XvOlJAl Xd€ 
XvCTOlfU 

Xvcraiua Xvcov 

XcXvKOijxi XcXvkc 



XV€IV 
Xv<T€lV 

Xvcai 
XcXvKcvai 



XllTOlfU X(lT6 Xl1T€lV 

XeXotTToifii X&oiire XcXoiircVat 



Participle. 
Xvwv 

Xvo"wv 
Xvo-as 

XeXvKws 

Xiirwv 

XcXotTTWS 



2 Plup. IXcXoiimv 



Pres. 
Imp. 
Fut. 
Aor. 
Perf. 



XvWfACU 



Middle Voice. 
Xvot|XT]v Xvov 

Xvo-ot^v 



Xv 6 <r0 at Xvdpevos 



Xvojiai 

€Xv6|XT|V 

Xvo-ofjtai Xvo-otjiTiv Xvcr6<r0ai XvcrojJtcvos 

cXvo-dp.il v Xv<r»(i.ai Xvo-atutjv Xvcrai Xv<rao*0ai Xv<rd|i€VO$ 
XeXvjiai XcXvjjigvos XcXvjxg'vos X&vo-o XcXvcrOai XeXvuivos 



0) 



Plup. IXsXvu/nv 

2 Aor. €Xiirdu.Tjv Xtirupai 



Pres. 
Imp. 
Fut. 

Aor. 
Perf. 
Plup. 



Same as 

middle 
XvOVjo-opai 
IXvOrjv Xv0d> 
Same as 

middle 



€IT]V 

XiiroCu/nv Xiirov 
Passive Voice. 



Xv0i]<roiji , nv 

Xu0€{t|V Xv0T]Tl 



\nr(<rQai Xnro'jievos 



Xv0T)(T€O*dak XvGrjcro'fievos 
Xv0i]vai XvOcCs 



F. Per. XeXvo-ojiai 

2 Fut. OTuX'/jo-onat 

2 Aor. ctrrdX-qv <rraX<a 



XeXvo-ccrOat XcXvcrduevos 
o-TaXfjcr€cr0at aTaXi] <rd jjlcvos 



X€Xv<toCjjlt]v 

<TToXT|0"Ol|l , qV 

oraXcvn v ardX^Ot <rraXfj vat oraXcCs 



64 



INFLECTION. 



[§96; 



2. The following table shows the meaning of each tense of 
Xvo) in the indicative, imperative, infinitive, and participle of the 
active voice : — 





Indicative. 


Imperative. 


Infinitive. 


Participle. 


Pres. 


/ loose or am 
loosing. 


Loose tlwu. 


To loose or to be 
loosing. 


Loosing. 


Imp. 


I was loosing. 








Fut. 


I shall loose. 




To loose (fut.). 


About to loose. 


A or. 


I loosed. 


Loose thou. 


To loose or to 


Having loosed 








have loosed. 


or loosing. 


Perf. 


I have loosed. 


Have loosed 
(§202,2,N.l.) 


To have loosed. 


Having loosed. 


Plup. 


I had loosed. 









The meaning of each tense of the middle can be seen by adding 
the words for myself, for thyself &c, to the meaning of the corre- 
sponding active form. 

In the passive the tenses are changed merely to suit that voice ; as 
/ am loosed, I teas loosed, I shall be loosed, I have been loosed, &c. 
The future perfect passive means / shall have been loosed (i. e. before 
some future event referred to). 

Note. The meaning of the various forms of the subjunctive and 
optative cannot be fully understood until the constructions are ex- 
plained in the Syntax. But the following examples will make them 
clearer than a mere translation of the forms : — 

Ai>o)fM€v (or \vo~(DfjL€v) avrov, let us loose him; firj \voys avrov, do not 
loose him. *Eav Xvo (or Xucra>) avrov, x<upW€i, \f I (shall) loose him, he 
will rejoice. "Epxpuai, Iva avrov Xua> (or Xvo-oj), I am coming that I may 
loose him. ElBe Xvoijjli (or Xvaaifju) avrov, that I may loose him. Et 
Xvoifii (or XvaaifjLi) avrov, ^aipot av, if J should loose him, he would 
rejoice. r HX6ov Iva avrov Xvotfxt (or Xuo-at/ui), / came that I might loose 
him. Jlittov on avrov Xvoi/zt, I said that I icas loosing him; (Tnov on 
avrov Xvaaifxi, I said that I had loosed him ; cinov on avrov Xvaotfii, I 
said that I would loose him. For the difference between the present 
and aoi 1st, see § 202, 1 ; for the perfect, see § 202, 2. 

§ 96. The regular verb \v<o, and the tenses of \el7r0) 
and crreWoj which are included in the synopsis, are thus 
inflected: — v 



96.] 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN Q. 



65 



I. Avco, to loose. 



t. -\ 2. 
3. 



Imperf. ^ 2. 
3. 



Future. 



Aorist. 



2. 
3. 

{ 2. 
3. 

Pluperf. \ 2. 
3. 



Sing. 
Xvo) 
Xv«? 
Xvft 

eXvov 
eXves 
?Xi/c 

Xvcno 

Xto-ftj 

XvVet 

eXvcra 

eXvcras 

fXucre 

XeXv/ca 

XcXvkhs 

Xe'XvKe 

eXeXvACfti/ 
cXfXuKets 
fXcXwce* 



Indicative Active. 

Dual. 

\V€T0V 
XvCTOV 



iXvcrov 
Ikvirrjv 

\l)(T€TOV 
\v(T€TOU 

TV t \J 

cAvcrarov 
€Av(rdTT]p 

A€\vkcitov 
AeXvKaTOP 

iXeXvKdTOV 

tXeXvKCLTTJV 



Plural. 
Xvojicv 

\t)€T€ 

\vov<ri 
eXvo/xfi/ 

i\v€T€ 

Xvo-Oficv 

\V(T0V<TI 

iXvcrafifv 

iXvcarc 

cXvcrav 

AeXvKdfiev 

XfXvKOTf 

AcXvKaai 

CA€\VK€1/A(V 

eXeAvKftre 
i\€\vK€i<rav 
or cXeXvKfcrav 



{ 2. 
3. 



Aorist. 



Perfect. 



Xi/a> 

Xvr/ff 
Xvrj 



Subjunctive Active. 

\\)T)TOV 

\vrjTOV 



\l>(TCO 
AlCTT]? 

XO077 
AeXvKco 

AtAVKflS 

At\vKjj 



AlHTTJTOV 
X{f(JTJTOV 

AeXvKTJTOV 
\€AVKJ]TOV 



AV(i)}l€P 

XvTJT€ 

\V(0(TI 

\va<D}JL€V 
Xv(TT]T€ 

Xvtraxri 

XfXvKCOjUCI' 

AeAi'Acrjre 



66 



INFLECTION. 



Optative Active. 



Present. 



Future. 



Aorist. 



Perfect. 



Sing. 
Xvoiyn 
Xvois 
Xvol 

Xvaoipi 

XlXTOLS 
XvCTOL 



Dual. 

XvOLTOV 

XvoLttjv 

XlXTOLTOV 
XvaOLTTJV 



Xvcraifxi 

Xvo-ais, Xvcrctas Xva-airov 

Xvcrcu, Xvcreie Xwcilttjv 

XeXv/coi/u 

XtXvKOlS XeXvKOLTOV 

XcXvkol XcXvKoirqv 



Plural. 
XvoLfiev 

Xl/OLT€ 
XvOL€V 

Xvaoifiev 
XvcroLTe 

Xv(TOL€V 

Xixratfiev 
Xvaaire 
Xvcrai€v, Xvaetav 

XeXvKoifiev 
XcXvkoitc 
XeXvicoiev ' 



Present, < ' 
Aorist. < ' 



Perfect. { ^ 



Imperative Active. 

Xi>€ Xverov 

Xv€T(o Xvercov 



Xvcrov 
XvaaTco 

XeXvKc 

XtXvKCTO) 



Xvadrov 
Xva-drcDV 

XeXvKsrov 
XeXvKerav 



Xll€T€ 

XvtTcoaav 

or XVOVTCOV 

XvaciTG 
XvaaTcoaav 
or XvadvTcov 

XcXvKere 
XcXvK€T<o(rav 



Infinitive Active. 

Present. Xvuv Aorist. Xvcrai 

Future. Xvaetv Perfect. XeXv/ceVai 



Participle Active. 

Present. Xua)i>, Xvovaa, Xvou 

Future. Xvo-tov, Xvaovcra, Xvaov 

Aorist. XvVa?, Xvaaaa^ Xixrav 

Perfect, XeXvKa>9, XcXvKvia, XcXvkos 



§96.] 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN Q. 



67 







Indicative Middle. 




Present, 


I* 


Sing. 

XvOfJLdl 

Xvfl, Xvei 


Dual. 
Xv€(t6ov 


Plural. 
XvojjLtOa 
Xv€a6e 




(3 


Xvercu 


Xv€<t6oV 


Xvovtcli 


Imperf. 


<• 


iXv6p.7)v 

iXvov 

eXvero 


iXl)€(T0OV 

iXveo-Brjv 


iXvoyLsOa 

iXveaOe 

cXvovto 


Future. 


i* 


Xixrofiai 
Xvcrr], Xvcrei 


Xv(T€<t6oV 


XvcrofjLtQa 
Xva-ccrde 




(3. 


XvcreraL 


Xvaea-Qov 


XxHTOVTCLl 


Aorist. 


!* : 


iXvcrdfxrjp 
iXvcrco 


iXixraadov 


eXvad/jLeda 
iXvcraad^ 




(3. 


iXvararo 


eXvadddrju 


iXlHTCLVTO 


Perfect. 


£ 


XeXvjJLai 
XeXvcrai 


XeXvcrOov 


XiXv^Oa 
XzXvaOe 




1 3. 


XeXvTat 


XiXvoSov 


XeXvvrat 


Pluperf. 


I-: 


iXeXvfirjv 
iXeXvao 


kXeXvaBov 


iXeXvfieBa 
iXeXvads 




iXeXvTo 


iXeXvaOrjv 


iXeXvvTo 



1 

Present. < 2 
3 



Aorist. 



Perfect. 



Subjunctive Middle. 

Xvco^iai 

Xwj XvqaOov 

Xvrjrai Xvrj(r6ou 



Xvcrcofxai 

XlXTJ] 

Xvo-qrai 

XeXvfjLevos a> 
XeXvfxcuos rjs 
XeXvfxtPOS 7) 



Xvo-TjcrOou 
XvarjaBov 



XeXvfxevco rjrov 
XeXv/xcVo) rjrov 



XvwjieOa 

XvrjaOe 

XvcovTai 

Xvd(£>n^6a 

XvorrjoSe 

Xvacovrai 

XeXvfxevoi <wuev 
XeXvfJLevoi rjre 
XeXvjievoi <*>crt 



68 



Present. 



Future. 



Aorist. 



Perfect. 







INFLECTION. 


[§96 




Optative Middle. 






Sing. 




Dual. 


Plural. 


I 1 ' 

l 3. 


Xi/Oi/zqj/ 






Xvoifxeda 


\V0L0 




\vout6ov 


\voio-6e 


XVOITO * 




\voia-Brjv 


Xvolvto 


f L 


\v<ToLfi7]V 






Xvcroifieda 


u. 


Xvo-oto 




Xv(TOL(T0OU 


\vcroi<r0e 


(3. 


\v(TOLTO 




\v(Toi<r6r)v 


Xvctolvto 


13. 


'Xva-alfjiTjv 






Xvcrai/ieOa 


\V(T(110 




\vo~ai(j6ov 


Xvo'diaBe 


XvcratTo 




\v(rai<rflr)v 


Xvaaivro 


f L 


XeXvficvos 


€LT}V 




XeXu/Xei/Ot €lT)fJL€V 


2 ' 


XeXv/xei/o? 


€L7]S 


XeXv/xeVo) eirjTov 


XeXtz/zeVoi e'irjTe 


(3. 


\e\vfl€V09 


€LTJ 


XeXu/xej/o) elrjrrjv 


XeXv/xeVot e'trjaau 



Present 



Aorist. 



Perfect 



•{I 

{i 
■{i 



Imperative Middle. 
Xvov XveaBou 



Xvcrai 
XvadcrdcD 



\e\vo~o 
XeXucr^o) 



\v<tcl(t6ov 
XvcraaOcov 



\e\vd6ov 
XeXvaOoov 



\V€(T06 

XveaOcocrav 
or Xvea-Bcov 

\vo-ao-6e 
Xvo'dadcocrav 
or XvadaOcov 

XcXvcrOcoo-au 
or XeXuer^W 



Infinitive Middle. 



Present. 
Future. 



\vto-6ai 
\v(T€(t6cu 



Aorist. 
Perfect. 



\v(raa6ai 
XeXucr#ai 



Participle Middle. 

Present. Xvopeisos, -77, -ov Aorist. Xuo-a/zei>o9, -t;, -ov 

Future. \vo-6ficvos, -77, -op Perfect. XcXvpevos, -tj, -op 



§ 90.] 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN O. 



69 



Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Passive, same as 



Future. 



Aorist. 



Future 
Perfect. 



Aorist. 



Future. 



Aorist. 



Future 
Perfect. 



Aorist 



■a 



in Middle. 
Indicative Passive. 

Singular. Dual. 

\v6qaofiai 

\v6r)(TT]) Xvdrj(T€i \v6f)<r€cr6op 

XvdrjacTai \v6t)<T€<t6ov 



iXvflrjp 
eXvdrjs 
(\v0rj 

XfXi'cro/iat 
XfXvarrj, XcXvo-ft 
\e\vcrcTcu 



iXvdrjrou 

€\v6f)TT]V 
\c\vtT€(T$OP 

XeXvareadov 



\v6a> 

XvOrjs 

\v6rj 



Subjunctive Passive. 

\v6t}tov 
\v6tjtov 



Xv6rj(roip.Tjv 

XvOrjaoio 

XvOrjarotTO 

\v0eirjv 
XvOelrjs 
\v0eirj 

\c\vaolfirjp 

XfXvcroio 

XeXvo-oiro 



Optative Passive. 

\v6t)<toi.<t6ov 
\v6rjaoia0rjp 

\v6elrjTov, \v6c7top 
XvOeifjTrjv, \v0€lTTJP 



Xikvo-otaOov 
XeXvaoiaOrjp 



XvQrjTi 

XvdfjTCO 



Future. \v6r)<re<T$at 
Fut. \v$rja-6fi€Vos 



Imperative Passive. 

\v6f]Toav 

Infinitive Passive. 
Aorist. \v$rjuat 

Participle Passive. 
Aor. Xv&k (§ 68) 



Plural. 
\v0Tja6fxe6a 

Xv6r)(roPTai 

iXiQrjTC 
i\v6t](rav 

\c\va6[X(3a 
XcXvacaGe 

\e\lHJOVTCLl 



\v6S>fJL€V 

\v6ghti 



\v6rjaoifi€0a 

7<v6f](TOi<r0€ 

XvQrjaoivTO 

\v6sir}crav, \v6cUp 

\e\vo-oia-0e 
XeXvaoiPTO 



\v6r)T€ 
\v6r}TO)(rap 
or XvOepTOiP 

Fut. Perf. XcXvcreo-tfai 



Fut. Perf. XcXvcrd/jcpo? 



70 



INFLECTION. 



[is o«. 






2 Aorist. ■< 2 

u 

< 2 
3 



^ 2 
3 

4 2 
3 



2 Aorist. 



2 Perfect 



■{ 



II. Aeiircoy to leave. 
Indicative Active. 

Dual. 



Sing. 
cXlttov 

e\l7T€S 
6 A 4776 

\e\0L7ra 
XeXonras 

XeX0£7T€ 

eXfXotircii' 
eXcXoiVecf 
eXeXoiVei 



(kintrov 

\e\oL7raTov 
\e\oi7raTOv 

i\c\oiir€iTov 

€k€\0l7r€tTT}V 



Subjunctive Active. 

Xl7TG> 

Xifrrfs 



XiVfl 

XeXoiTTO) 
\e\oi7rys 
XeXoi7T27 



XwnjTOP 
XinrjTOV 

XcXoinrjTov 



Optative Active. 

XlVoi/Xl 

\l7TOlS \l7TOLTOP 

Xl7TOt \l7TOlTTJU 

XeXoiVoi/n 

XeXoiVot? XeXoiVotroi/ 

XtXotVot XeXoi7roiT^^ 

Imperative Active. 

XmTC Xl7T€TOV 

XiireTco Xi7re'r6>i> 



XeXot7re 

XcXot7T€Vo) 



XeXot7reror 

XcXot7T€Ta>V 



Plural. 

i\l7TOJJ.€P 

€At7rere 

cXl7TOZ/ 

XeXoi7ra^i6v 

XeXo/7rar€ 

XeXo(7rao"t 

IXeXotTTCifiev 

cXfXoiTTCire 

eXeXotVeto-ai/ 
or iXcXoiTreaav 



XiVa>/zei/ 

Xt7T^T€ 
XlTTfiMri 

XeXoi7TO)/X€l' 

XeXotV^rf 
XeXoi7rci>(ri 



\L7TOlfi€V 
Xl7TOlTC 

XiVotcy 

XeXoLnoifiep 
XeXoi7rotrc 

XeXoi7TOt€V 



Xl7T6Tf 

Xi7r€ra)0"a»> 
or Xt7roj>ra>j> 

XeXotVeTe 
XfXotTTcrcocrai' 



§96.] 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN Q. 



71 



Infinitive Active. 
2 Aorist. \nre\v 2 Perfect. XeXowreW 

Partible Active. 

2 Aorist. Xinw, Xinovaa, \utop 

2 Perfect. XeXownos, XeXoi7rvIa, XcKomos 



2 Aorist. 



1. 

2. 
3. 



Indicative Middle. 



iXnrofirjv 

€kl7TOV 

iXinero 



€\l7T€(r8oV 
i\l7T€(T0qV 



cXwro/ze&z 

i\t7T€(r0€ 

IXinopTo 



2 Aorist. 



Subjunctive Middle. 

1 . XiVa)/xat 

2. X17J77 \l7rr}(r6ov 

3. \i7rrjTat XiirriaOov 



'Xi7rrj(r6e 
XtVcai/Tai 



2 Aorist. 



1. 
2. 
3. 



Optative Middle. 



\nrol\ir\v 
XiVoto 

XlVoiTO 



\i7TOKt6oV 

\iTTolaBrjv 



\i7rolfic6a 

\l7rOl<J0€ 
\l7TOIPTO 



2 Aorist. 



{I 



Imperative Middle. 



\l7TOV 



\ur4<j6a>v 



XtVeo-^e 

\l7T€(T0CO(raV 

Or XtrricrBcop 



Infinitive. 
2 Aorist. XinicrOai 



Participle. 

XtTTO/XCWf, -7], -OP 



72 



INFLECTION. 



[§96. 



III. 2Ve\\G>, to send. 
Indicative Passive. 

Sing. Dual. Plural. 

( 1. OTa\r}<roncu oraXqo-o/zetfa 

2 Fut. "\ 2. (rTa\f)(TT], <TTa\r)cr€i aTakrjo-eo-Oop (TTaXrjcrcaBe 

' 3. (TTa\f](T€TCU OTakr)(T€(T0OV <TTa\r)VOVTai 



1. i(TTaKr)v 
2 Aor. «{ 2. iaraXrjs 
3. eoraXiy 



eordXtyroi/ 
c<TTa\r]TT]v 



€CTTaXrjfi€P 
€aT(iXr)(rav 



1. oraXo) 
2 Aor. -( 2. oraXjJff 
3. oraXjj 



Subjunctive Passive. 

oraKfJTOv 
aTaXrjrov 



orakapcp 

aTa\rJT€ 

oraXaxri 



Optative Passive. 

1. aTakrj(roifir)v (TTakrjo-oifieda 

2 Fut. ^ 2. oraXqo-oio oraXfjaoKrOop oraX^croio-tfe 

3. oraX^o-oiro (TTaXrjaoicrdrjp gtciXtj&oipto 

( 1. trrakeirjp araXcirjfiep, oTakeipev 

2 Aor. "\ 2. oTa\cii]s oraXeirjTOPi oto\c7top crake tyre, oraXcIrc 

\ 3. oraXcti; oraXft^TT;^, oTaKetTrjp arakeiTjaap, oraXeUp 



Imperative Passive. 

o a J 2. oraX?7#i ordXTjToj' 

I 3. oraX^ro) oraX^rcDP 



ordX^Tc 
crraX^raxrav 
or crraXeWa)^ 



Infinitive Passive. 
2 Future. OTa\t)crc(r6at 2 Aorist. <rraXi)j>ai 



Participle Passive. 
2 Future. <rraX77cro7ic>'or > -77, -ov 2 Aorist. oraXci'r, -cfcra, -€* 



§»7.] 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN Q. 



73 



§ 97. The future and aorist active and middle of tyalvco 
(<£ai>-), to show, exhibits the peculiar formation of these 
tenses in liquid verbs (§ 94). 

The futures are contracted like the present of <j>i\ca> (§ 123) ; 
thus, cf)av€(D, <pav(o ; (fraveofiai, (j>avovficii. See §§ 120, 121. 



Sing. 
j 1. (f)aua> 

Future.-^ 2. favtls 

<f)avel 



l 3. 



Aorist. 



Aorist. 



1 . €(j)T]Va 

2. €(j)7]vas 

3. e(j)r]V( 



( 1. ffirjVG) 

\ 2. <j>f}Vfls 



^UTJ 



Indicative Active. 

Dual. 
(fcav&Tov 



c(f>r)vaTOV 
ifprjvdrrjv 

Subjunctive A ct ive. 

<j)rjur]TOV 

Optative Active. 



( 1. (fravoijjLi) -olr)v 
Future. *\ 2. cj)avo7s, -olrjs 
\ 3. (pavol, -oil] 



Aorist. 



(f)T]VaifXL 

(j)r)vais, (f)f)V€ia$ 



(pavolrov, -oItjtov 
(ftavoiTrjV) -oirjTrjv 

<j)r]vcuTOv 

(j)7]VaiT7]U 



Aorist 



*• i 



Imperative Active. 

(ferjvop (j)r)vaTov 

(j)rjva.T(o CJ>rjvaTa>v 



Plural. 
fpavovfi€U 
(f)av€lT€ 

(j)ClVOV<TL 

€<fir)VClT€ 
€(j)T]UaV 



(j)r)V(OfJL€V 
<fif]VTJT€ 



(ftavolre, -oir)T€ 
(jxivolcv, -olrjcrav 

(f)r)vaifi€P 
(prjvaiTe 
(prjvaieu, (f)r)veiav 



(f)T]i/dT(oaav 
or (jyrjvdvToiv 



Aorist. (pTjvai 



Infinitive Active. 
Future, fyaveiv 

Participle Active. 

Future. (j)avcov, (fravovoci, (pavovp Aorist. (j)i]vas, (f)t)va<ra, (jirjvav 



74 



INFLECTION. 



§ 93. 



Indicative Middle. 

Dual, 



1. 
< 2. 

3. 

(i 

Aorist. < 2. 
13. 



Aorist. 



Future. 



Aorist. 



Aorist 



n 



■{ 



Sing. 
(pavovfiai 
(f)avTJ, (pavel 
(pavelTai 

€(f)T]VCD 

i(firjvciTO 



(paveloSov 
(paveladov 

i(j)r]vacrBov 
i(j)T]vdcr6rjv 



Subjunctive Middle. 

(prjvcofiat 

<pr]Vfl (pr]vr)(r6ov 

(prjvqrai (prjvrjcrBov 

Optative Middle. 



(paVOLjJLTJV 

(pavoio 
(pauolro 

(p-qvaifjirjv 
<fif)vaio 

(pr]l>ClLTO 



(pavolaBov 
(pavoicrdiju 

(prjvaia-Bov 
(pTjvaiaOriv 



Imperative Middle. 

(prjvat (prjvaa-Oov 

(firjvdorQco <))T]vd(r6cDi> 



Infinitive Middle. 
Future. <f>avclar6ai Aorist. 

Participle Middle. 



Plural. 
(pavovfieBa 
(pavelade 
(pavovvTai 

€<prjvdjj.€0a 
icprjvacrde 

€(pf]UaVTO 



(pT]VQ)fie6a 
(prjv7]cr8€ 

(pTJVCDVTai 



(fravoi/jLeBa 

(pavolcrQe 

(fravolvTo 

(firjvaifieOa 

(prjvaLcrOe 

(frrjvaLVTO 



(prjvaaBe 
<ftr]vdo6(Dcrav 
or (f)7]vd<Tda>v 

(j)r}vacr6ai, 



Future. (fravovuevos, -tj, -ov Aorist. ifirjvdfievos, -77, -ov 

Periphrastic Forms. 

§ 98. 1. All verbs whose stems end in a consonant form 
the third person plural of the perfect and pluperfect indic- 
ative passive and middle by the perfect participle and elcrlr 
and rjaav, the present and imperfect of elfil, to be (§ 129). 



§ 98.J 



PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 



7 



These tenses of t/h/3o> (stem rpt/3-), to rub, ttXckco 
(7rXe/c-) ? to weave, 7T€l0co (iretO-^ to persuade, and areXXco 
(areW-, crre\- 3 araX-), to send, are thus inflected: — 



{1. T€TpifJLfiai 
2. rerpt^at 
3. TeTplTTTdl 

(2. T€Tpi<fi6oV 
( 3. T€Tpl<pd0P 

( 1. T€Tpipp€$a 

P. *\ 2. rirpKpde 



3. 



Perfect Indicative. 

7re7rAey/iafc 7r(7T€io-pai 

7T€7r\e£ai 

7T€7rXeKTat 



T€TpipfJL€l/OL 



TreirkcxOov 

7T€Tr\€x6oi/ 

7T€7r\eyfi€6a 

TrerrXe^^e 

7T€7rXey/zeVoi 

€i(7t 



7T€7Tei(7ai 
TTtTTCMTTCLt. 

7t€TT€l(T6oV 

Trzireio-Qov 

7r€TT€L(Tpe6a 
7r^7T€LCrfJL€VOl 

clcrl 



eoraX/zat 
eoraXcrat 
eVraXrat 

e<jTa\6ov 
€(TTa\6ov 

€<TTaX[icda 
coraX #e 
ccrTciXpevoi 



Subj. 
Opt. 






Perfect Subjunctive and Optative. 

T€Tpififievos a) 7rf7rXeyyLi6^o? a> 7r€7T€L(rjJL€Vos w icrraXpcvos a> 

T€TpippeV05 7T€7rX€ypi6POS 7r€7T€l(Tfl€VOS eOTaX/ieVo? 

31 if »/ J/ 

6l?7I> €17/J> €1^1/ 617/1/ 



2. rirpiyfro 

3. T€TpL<p0(O 

2. T€Tpi(f)6oV 

3. T€Tpi(f)0(OV 

2. T€TpL(f>0€ 

3. T€Tp[(f>6(0(TaV 

Of T€Tpl(j)6oi>V 



Perfect Imperative. 

7T€7rXf^O 

7re7rXe;£#G> 



TreirkexOov 
7re7rXe;(#a>z> 



7T€7T€iaO 

7re7rei(T0ov 

7T€7T€Lad(OV 



eoraXcro 
c'otuX&o 

earoXBov 
earakBcov 



7T€7r\€x6e Trene icrBe ea-raXde 

7T€7r\£x0a)(rav TrtTTeicrOuHrav io-ToXBcoaav 
or TTtTrktxQw or 7[€7T6LaBo}V or iaToXBcop 



Perfect Infinitive. 
T€Tpl(j)0ai 7re7rXe^^ai TreTriLcrQai c<TTa\0ai 

Perfect Participle. 
r*Tpipp\vo$ TreirXey fiivos tt€tt€lct^vos ea-raXfxipos 



76 







INFLECTION. 


[Si 






Pluperfect Indicative. 




f L 


kTZTpi\llLY)V 


i7T€7r\€ypT]U 


€7re7re 107x77 z> 


io-Tokpnv 


2 - 


€T€Tpl\j/0 


€7T€7rAe£o 


> * 

€7767T€L(TO 


eVraXcro 


u 


€T6TpL7TTO 


ineTrkeKTO 


iire7rei(TTO 


€crra\ro 


(2. 


€T€Tpi(f)6oV 


lireTrkexBov 


iTreTTtio-Bov 


€(TTa\6ov 


(3. 


€T€Tpl(pdr]V 


€7T€7T\ex6r]V 


i7T€77ei(j6r]v 


io'TaXOrjv 


f L 


€T€Tpippe6a 


€7re7rXey/ze#a 


eTreirdcrpeQa 


e&TaXpeOa 


2 - 


%T6Tpi<fid€ 


iireTrkexOe 


€7T€7r€L(j6€ 


€(TTO.\6€ 


13. 


TtTpippkvoi 


7T€TT\€yp€POl 


7T€7r€l(r[A€VOl 


eoraX/xei/ot 




rjaav 


rpyav 


rjcrav 


rjcrav 



D. 



P. 



Note. The regular third person plural in these tenses (reT/n/S-j/rai, 
7T€7rk€K-vTai, &c, like XeXv-vrat) could not be pronounced. The other 
variations from the corresponding forms of Xvco arise from ordinary 
euphonic changes, which are all explained in § 16, 1, 2, 3, and 4. 
The regular endings (§ 112, § 117, 1, § 118) are added to the root of 
the tense (§ 113) with the necessary changes. 

2. The perfect subjunctive and optative of the passive and 
middle is always formed by the perfect participle and a> or etrjv, 
the subjunctive and optative of dpi. Similar forms are some- 
times used in the active voice, instead of the forms in © and oipi. 

Note. Even the perfect and pluperfect indicative are sometimes 
expressed by the participle and dpi. A similar periphrasis for the 
future perfect active is often necessary, as this tense is found in very 
few verbs ; as tovto iyvcoKores iaopeda, ice shall have learned this. 

3. A periphrastic future is sometimes formed by /xe'XXco and 
the present or future (seldom the aorist) infinitive ; as peWoficv 
tovto TroieLv (or 7roir)(j€iv), we are about to do this. (See § 202, 3, 
Note.) 

AUGMENT. 

§ 99. 1. In the secondary tenses of the indicative, and 
in the perfect and future perfect of all the moods and the 
participle, the stem of the verb receives an augment (i. e. 
increase) at the beginning. 

2. Augment is either syllabic or temporal. The syllabic 
augment prefixes a syllable to verbs beginning with a con- 
sonant. The temporal augment lengthens the first syllable 
of verbs beginning with a vowel. 






§ 102.] AUGMENT. 77 

Syllabic Augment. 

§ 100, Most verbs beginning with a consonant aug- 
ment the imperfect and aorist by prefixing e. E. g. 

Aua), eXvov, e'Xvcra] ypdcpco, eypcKpofirjv, €ypa\jsdp.7]v ) pL7TTco, €ppL7rrou, 
€ppi\j/a (15, 2). 

§ 101. 1. Most verbs beginning with a consonant aug- 
ment the perfect by prefixing that consonant with e. This 
is called rcchqolication. E. g. 

Auo), Xe'-Xu/ca, Xe'-Xv/xai, \e-\vKevai, Xe-Xv/ccos, Xe-Xv/xeVo? ; ypdcjxo, yi- 
ypa(f)a, ye-y pdfyOai. So Bvco, re-6vKa (§ 17, 2) ; 0aii>a> (<£ai>-), 7re- 
(fiaapai (§ 113, N. 2); ^aiVco, Kk-yrpja. 

2. The pluperfect of these verbs is augmented by pre- 
fixing e to the reduplication ; as \e\v/ca, iXeXvtceiv. 

Note 1. A few verbs take et instead of the reduplication; as 
e'lXrj^a, ei'X^a (from Xa/x/3az>o>, Xay^dvoo). 

Note 2. The pluperfect may omit the additional augment; as 
XeXu/ca, plup. \e\vK6iv. 

3. Verbs beginning with two consonants (except a mute 
and a liquid), with a double consonant (£ f , t/r), or with p, 
have the simple augment e in the perfect and pluper- 
fect. E. g. 

SreXXco, €(TTa\Ka, €<rrd\K€iv', f^reo), i£r}Tr]Ka.] ^euSco, c^evcrpai, €\jf€v~ 
op.£vos) plnrco, eppififjuxi, €pp7(p6ai (for pp see § 15, 2), 

Note. Verbs beginning with yv, and some others beginning with 
a 'mute and a liquid, take e instead of the reduplication; as yvcopifa, 
eyvojpLKa ; yiyi/axr/ca) (yw-), eyi>a>Ka; but Kkeico, Ke/cXei/ca (regularly). 

Temporal Augment. 

§ 102. 1. Verbs beginning with a short vowel are aug- 
mented in all tenses by lengthening that vowel. If the 
initial vowel is long, it remains so ; but a and a are both 
changed to rj. E. g. 

*Ayo>, rjyov, r)x a ' ?7M al J VX® r l v ^ cXavva), fj\avvov] 6i/€i8i£a), wveidtfyv, 
vftplfa (v), vfipicrOrjv (v) ; aKokovdea, r)K.6kov6r]cra, r)Ko\ov6r}Ka, r)Ko\ovdr]- 
Ktvai, T}Ko\ov6r]KQ)S j opBocoj upO&cra, o>p0a>/xcu; diWa> (a), rj'i£a. 



78 INFLECTION. [§ 103. 

Note. BovXofiai, to ivish, bvvap.ai, to be able, and peXXco, to intend, 
may add the temporal augment to the syllabic ; as €(3ovX6p.Tjv or 
r)(3ov\6fJLT]v * iftovXrjOrjv or r)^ovXr]6r]v ] ibvvdp.nv or r\bvvdixnv ) efieXXov or 
fjjjLeXXov. 

2. Verbs beginning with a diphthong receive the tem- 
poral augment on the first vowel of the diphthong. E. g. 

hlrico, jJTT](ra ; oik€<o, cdKTjcra, G)Kr)nevos ; ev^ofiai, rjv^op-Tjv, 
Note. Ov is never augmented, and ei very seldom. 

§ 103, Some verbs beginning with a vowel take the syl- 
labic augment as if they began with a consonant. When e 
follows the augment, ee is contracted into «. E. g. 

'QOccq (stem cod-), to push, ecocra, ecoo-fiai, ioaaSr^v] ayvvpa (stem ay), 
to break, ea£a, 2 Perf. cdya; iOi^co, to accustom, eWiaa, cWuia (from 
ieBiva, &c.), idco, to permit, eidcra, eta/ca; epbco, to do, 2 Perf. eopya. 

'Opdco, to see, takes the temporal augment after the syllabic ; as iwpcov, 
i(opa<a (or iopaica), icopafiai. So oXyco, to open. 

Note. Most of these verbs originally (at least in their primitive 
roots) began with the consonant f (digamma), so that their augment 
is really regular. Thus ea£a is for eFaga, from root Fay- ; eopya is for 
FeFopya, from root Fepy-, which appears in English work (werk). 

Attic Reduplication. 

§ 104. Some verbs beginning with a, e, or o augment 
the perfect by prefixing their first two letters to the com- 
mon temporal augment. This is called the Attic redupli- 
cation, E. g. 

'Akovco (S.KO-), o.KT]Koa\ e/xeo>, cfjLrjfieKa ; iXeyxco, eX^Xey/xat; eXavvco 
(eXa-), eXrjXaKa, iXrjXafiai. 

Note. The pluperfect of these verbs rarely takes an additional 
augment. 

Augment of Compound Verbs. 

§ 105. 1. When the first part of a compound verb is a 
preposition, the augment follows the preposition. Prepo- 
sitions (except irepl and irpo) drop a final vowel before 
the augment e. E. g. 

Upocrypd(f)(o, irpocriypa^ov, 7rpoa-y€ypacj)a ; eladyco, elarjyov (§ 26, N. 1) ; 
€K(3d\\<o, etjeftaXXov (§ 13, 2) ; crv/jLTrXeKco, avvenXeKov (§ 16, 5) ; a7T0- 
/3aXXo), aTrefidkXov ; — but irepiefiaXXov and npoeXeyov. 



§ 107.] VEEBAL STEMS. 79 

]STote 1. Tipo may be contracted with the augment ; as npovXeyov 
and irpovfiaLvoV) for 7rpoeXeyoi> and irpoifiaivov. 

Note 2. Some verbs not themselves compounds, but derived from 
nouns or adjectives compounded with prepositions, are augmented 
after the preposition; as vnoTrrcvco (from £71-071-7-0?), to suspect, vn&~ 
7TT€vov, as if the verb were from vivo and oTrreva). So Karrjyopeco (from 
Karrjyopos), to accuse, Karrjyopovv (not eKaTrjyopovv). 

Note 3. A few verbs take the augment before the preposition, 
and others have both augments ,* as dvoiya), rjvoiyov ; d^e^o), qi/et^d/xTii/, 
rjv€(rx6fii]v (or r]vcrxppr)v). 

See in the Lexicon d/zt/W/^reG), biaKovia> 1 bianaoa, iyyvdoa, 7rapavo[X€0D, 
as examples of these irregularities and those of Note 2. 

2. Compounds of 6W-, ill, and occasionally those of ev, well, 
are augmented after the adverb, if the verb itself begins with 
a vowel. E. g. 

Avcapeoreo), oWrjpeoTTiKa ; cvapeorea), €vrjpeo~Tr)Ka. 

Note. In other cases, compounds of dv<r- are augmented regu- 
larly, and those of eu omit the augment. 

VERBAL STEMS. 

§ 106. Pure verbs (§ 94) lengthen the final vowel of 
the stem, if it is short, in all tenses except the present and 
imperfect. A and e become rj, and o becomes ca ; but when 
a follows e, j, or />, it becomes a. E. g. 

Tt/xcio) (rt/xa-), Tip.rj-aco, erifirj-o-a, T€Tip,r]-Ka, reri/XT;-/xat, en/x^-^T/i/. 
3>iXea> (<£(Xe-), (f)i\r]o-<Q, €(j)i\r](ra, 7re(f)iX7jKa, 7T€(f)i\r][icu, e(^iKr]6j)v. ArjXoco 

(pT]Xo~), drjX&CTQ), &C. SO TfW, TlVa) (t) J ddKplKO, daKpV(T<0 (li). But 

eaa>, eacro) (a) ; tdo/zat, lao-opai (a) ; Spaa), 6pdo-a> (a), edpaaa, SedpaKa. 
, Ava> has v in the present in Attic poetry (generally v in Homer) ; 
but generally v in other tenses except the future and aorist. 

Note 1. 'Afcpodo/zai, to hear, has dicpodcrofjLai (a), &c. Xpda>, to #z<;e 
oracles, has xpr)o-<o, &c. 

Note 2. Some pure verbs retain the short vowel of the stem 
contrary to the general rule; as Kakeco, AcaXeVco, eVcdXeo-a; yeXda>, ye- 
Xdo"a) (a), eye'Xao-tt ; dpKea>, dpKeVa) ; reXeco, reXecrco. (See § 120, 2.) 

§ 107. Many mute and liquid verbs form part of their 
tenses from a simpler stem than that which appears in the 
present and imperfect. E. g. 



80 INFLECTION. [§ 108. 

Upda-o-co and e7Tpa(raov are from the stem Trpaa-a--) but 7rpa£a> 
(Trpayaco) and eirpa^a are from the simple stem irpay-. MavOdvco and 
£}iav6avov are from the stem ixavdav- ; but tfiaOov and fiadqcrop,aL are 
from px#-. 

Note 1. The simple stem must often be learned by observation; 
but the following rules (§ 108) for forming the stem of the present 
from the simple stem include the greater part of the cases that occur. 

JSTote 2. A verb which has more than one stem is commonly 
called irregular (or anomalous), although many of the irregularities 
may be brought under general rules. 

Formation of the Present from tlie Simple Stem. 

§ 108. Verbs have been divided into nine classes, with ref- 
erence to the formation of the present from the simple stem. 

1. First Class. (Stem unchanged.) Here the present is 
formed directly from the simple stem ; as in Xvco, Xeya>, tt\U<d, 
TpijSo), ypdtpa. 

2. Second Class. (Lengthened Mute Steins.) Mute stems 
of this class lengthen short a, i, or v into rj, «, or ev, to form the 
stem of the present : as ttjkco {tqk-), Xelirco (Xi7r-), favyco (<pvy~). 

The simple stem here is found chiefly in second aorists and kindred 
forms ; as erdKijv. e'Xt7roi/, €(pvyov. For et changed to oi in the second 
perfect, see § 109, 2. 

3. Third Class. (Verbs in 7ttco, or T Class.) Simple labial 
(it, ft (j>) stems generally add r, and thus form the present in 

7TTCO (§ 16, 1) ; aS K07TT(0 (k07T-), /3Xa7TTa) (/3Xa/3-), pLTTTCxi (pL<j>-)- 

Here the simple stem cannot be determined from the present. 
Thus, in the examples above given, the stem is to be found in the 
second aorists €K07rr)v, €ft\d(3r]v, and epp[<fir)v ; and in KaXv7TTco (/caXi;/3-), 
to cover, it is seen in KaXv[3-r), hut. 

4. Fourth Class. I. (Verbs in o-o-od and £g>.) Presents in 
croa (ttw) generally come from palatal (k, y, x) stems ; as 7rpd(T<ra> 
(irpay-), fut. 7rpd^(o; /xaXacrcro) (/xaXa/c-, seen in paXaKos), fut. paXd^co', 
Tapdao-G) (rapax; Seen in -rapa;^), fut. rapdgco. 

Presents in fa> may come from stems in 8 or from stems in y 
(or yy) ; as (frpdfa (<fipad-), fut. (frpdo-cD, 2 aor. (Epic) ir'^pahov ; 
Kop.l£<i> (ko/jliS-, seen in Kopibrj), fut. ko^u'o-co ; pefa (/5ey-), fut. p€^a> ; 
jcXa£a) (/cXayy-, compare clango), fut. Kkdyga. 



§108.] FORMATION OF PRESENT FROM SIMPLE STEM. 81 

A few presents in o-crco come from lingual stems ; as ipeo-o-co, to row 
(from eper-, seen in spires, rower). Two come from labial stems; plfa 
(vift-), to wash, fut. ptyco; and ireo-a-a (ttctt-), to cook, fut. 7rt\j/6o. 

II. (Lengthened Liquid Stems.) Simple stems in X form pres- 
ents in XXa) ; those in dp, dp, tp, or ep form presents in cup<d, aipco, 
€iv<o, or eipco * those in Xv, vp, or vp form presents in Ip<d, vvco, or 
vpco. Thus, o-rcXXo) (oreX-), dyycXXo) (dyyeX-) ; (fxxlpco ((f)up-), aipco 
(dp-), kt€ipg> (ktcp-), (nreipa) ((T7rep-) ; k/jiVo) (itpXv-), dpvpco (dpvp-), o-upco 

(o-i/p). (See § 109, N. 1.) 

'O^e/Xco (o$eX-), to fo obliged, to owe, follows the analogy of stems 
in ev, to avoid confusion with the regular o<£eXXo>, to increase; but in 
Homer it has its regular form o$eXXa>. 

Note. The whole fourth class is called the Iota Class, as all these 
changes are explained by supposing an l to have been added to the simple 
stem with the consequent euphonic changes. By these changes, palatals 
(k> Y> X) an( l rarely other mutes with i form <t<j ; 8 (sometimes 7) with t 
forms ^*; X with t forms XX ; v and p with t undergo metatliesis (§ 14, 1), 
and t is then contracted with the preceding vowel (u and i/t becoming l and 
u). On the same principle are explained apparently irregular comparatives 
like paXkov for pdXiov (§ 75, N. 2), iXda-aup for eXax-twp (§ 73, 1), fiefap 
and pdfap for pey-Luv y Odacrccp for ra%-tw^ (stem 0ciX"> § 17, 2, Note), 
i)<r<T<j3v for tjk-lojv (cf. 7]k-i<ttos) ; so also feminines like fxeXcuva for j&eXap-La 
(§ 67), o-ibreipa for o-urep-ia, yXviteta for y\vK€-ia. For feminine participles 
in ouca, dca, and eto-a, see § 119, 1, Note. 

5. Fifth Class. (N Class.) Many simple stems are length- 
ened in the present by adding a*/ ; as apaprdp-co (from apapr-), 
alvOav-opcu (alaB-). If the last vowel of the simple stem is short, 
a nasal (p, p., or y, according to the following consonant, § 16, 5) 
is inserted after the vowel ; as, \apftdp <o (from Xa/3-, \a[Sav-), 

pav6av-<0 (from pad-, paBav-), \ayxdpco (from Xa^-j Xaxai>-). 

Some stems add simply v ; as <fi6dp<d ((j)6a-), Kappco (icap-). 
Others add pe ; as Upeopai (lie-). 

Others add.it/ (after a vowel i>i>v) ; as, ScUpv-pt ($«*-), afiipw-fii 
(o-jSe-). These verbs end in v/zi. 

6. Sixth Class. (Verbs in o-kco.) These add o-k or to-/c to the 
simple stem to form the stem of the present ; as yrjpdaKQ) (yrfpa-), 

€VplO~K(D (dp'), 

7. Seventh Class, (e Class.) A few simple roots add * to 
form the stem of the present; as 6Ww (Sok-), fut. 6\>£co ; a>0ea> 
(£0.), fut. tJ*ra> (§ 16, 2). 

4 4* 



82 INFLECTION. [§ 109. 

Most verbs iu e a> have stems in e, and belong to the first class ; as 

7TOUG) (7TOte-), fut. T7017](TCO. 

8. Eighth Class. (Reduplicated Verbs.) A few simple 
stems are reduplicated in the present by prefixing their first 
consonant with an t ; as Tirpdco (rpa-), to bore ; ttIttt(o (irer-) for 
m-iT€Tco ; yiyvopcn, (y*w) for yi-ycvopai. Most verbs of this class end 
in fit ; as, TiOrjpi (0e-), didcopi (do-), iottj/u (ara-) for aiaTrjfjii. So 
hffu (e-) for l-i-fMi. See § 125, 2. 

9. Ninth Class. (Mixed Class.) This class includes those 
verbs whose present is not formed from any simple stem in use ; 

as (pepco, to bear, ouro), rjveyica, Zvfjvoxa, evrjveypai, rjvex^v. Here we 

have three stems (ot- ? eveic-, Zvey*-) all entirely independent of the 
present stem fop-. 

Note. A verb may belong to more than one class at the same' 
time. Thus, paiva> (j3a-), to go, adds v to its stem (class 5), and then 
lengthens fidw to fiaiw (class 4, II.), like (fraivco ((j)aw). So yiy vcovkc*) 
(yvo-) belongs both to class 6 and to class 8. 

Modification of the Simple Stem. 

§ 109. The vowel of the simple stem may be variously 
modified in the tenses formed from it. 

1. The second perfect regularly changes c of the simple stem 
to o, and lengthens a to rj (after p, to d). E. g. 

Srepyco (crrepy-), earopya', ylyvop,ai (yew), yeyova', tiktg> (re*-), tc- 
TOKa] (fiaivto ((f)dv-), 7re(f)r]va] icpdfa (icpay-), KCKpaya. 

2. Verbs of the second class (§ 108, 2) form the second perfect 
from the lengthened stem ; but ei lengthened from X becomes oe. 
E.g. 

<£>ei;yG> (<££y-), necpevya] rf]K(o (ra/c-), Terqica] XeiVa) (Xi7T-), \e\onra. 

3. When e in a monosyllabic simple stem either precedes or 
follows a liquid, it is generally changed to a in all tenses formed 
from the simple stem, except the future and aorist active and 
middle ; except also the second perfect (§ 109, 1). E. g. 

SreXXco (oreX-), ecrraXica, eoraX^icu, icrTakr)v\ rpeVo), Terpap.pai, irpd- 
(f)Br]V (Ion.), erpanov, erpaTTTjv, €Tpa7r6p,rjv ; Tpe(f)(D (#/3€(jb-), riBpappai, 
erpd(f)Tjv, trpacfiov; a7T€Lpcc (o~TT€p-), ecnrappai, ienrdp-qv. 

Note 1. Four verbs in va> omit v of the stem before terminations 



§ 111.] CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TENSES. 83 

beginning with a consonant; Kplvco (icptv), to separate, K€KpX<a, KeKpipai, 
€Kpl6rjv j kXlvw (kXlv)i to incline, kckXiko, KtKXipai, eKkiOnv) ttXvvco 
(nXvv-), to wash, 7T€7r\vfiai, enXvOnv \ rcivco {rev-), to stretch, Teraica, 
T€Tap.ai, erdBnv (§ 109, 3). 

When v is not thus dropped, it regularly becomes y before ko. (§ 16, 
5), and irregularly becomes cr before /xat (§ 113, X. 2) ; as (paivco 
(<j)av-), 7T€<fiayKa, 7re(pa<Tfiai, icpdvdnv. 

Note 2. For the peculiar modification of the stem in the future 
and aorist active and middle of liquid verbs, see §§ 120, 121. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TENSES. 

§ 110. The letters which are added to the stem of a verb 
to form the special stem of any tense are called the characteristic 
of that tense. Such are the following : — 

1. 2 in the future and aorist active and middle, and in the 
future perfect. But in liquid verbs the future active and mid- 
dle adds e to the simple stem, and the aorist merely lengthens 
the last vowel of the stem (a to rj, e to «). See §§ 120, 121. 

2. K in the perfect and pluperfect active. But stems ending 
in 7r or ft k or y, merely aspirate those letters, those in <£ and x 
remaining unchanged. 

3. 077 in the aorist passive \ -n in the second aorist passive. 
But 6e and e in the subjunctive, optative, and participle. 

4. Bncr in the future passive ; -nor in the second future passive. 

Note. The present end imperfect, the second perfect and pluper- 
fect, the second aorist active and middle, and the perfect and plu- 
perfect passive and middle, have no characteristic. In these tenses 
the stem undergoes only the modifications already described. 

§ 111. The stem of a verb with the proper characteristics 
gives the stem of each tense. Thus, Xvco (Xv-), Tpipco (rpt/3-), and 
oreXXco (oreX-) have the following special tense-stems : — 

(a.) Pres. d: Imp. of all voices ) (a.) <rre\\- 

L {b.) Pf <fc Plup. pass, & mid. \ Xv ~ Tp ^' (b.) araX- (§ 109, 3) 

(a.) Future active and middle \ (a.) orcXe- (§ 120, 1) 
U. (b.) Aorist active a?id middle >Xva- rpi\j/- (b.) ereiX- (§ 121) 
(c.) Future Perfect. ) (c.) 

III. Perf. and PJup. active Xvk- rpup- (TtoXk- 



84 INFLECTION. [§ 112. 

(a.) Future passive \v6tj<t- TpLtpd-na- 

' (b.) Second Future passive <tt<l\t)<t- 

(a.) Aorist passive Xv6tj-(\v6€-) Tpt<f>d7]-(Tpi<f>d€-) — — 

(b.) Second Aorist pass-ive (TTaX^-^raXe-) 

By adding the terminations and connecting vowels (§§ 112, 114- 
119) to these tense-stems, and prefixing the augment when neces- 
sary, any tense of a regular verb can be formed. 

ENDINGS AND CONNECTING TOWELS. 
Indicative. 

§ 112. The endings which are peculiar to the different per- 
sons of the verb are called personal endings. These have one 
form for the active voice, and another for the passive and mid- 
dle ; but the aorist passive has the endings of the active. 

The personal endings of the indicative are as follows : — 

Active. Passive and Middle. 







Primary Tenses. 


Secondary Tenses. 


Primary Tenses. & 


'econdary 1 


Sing. 


1. 


fit or — 


v or — 


fiai 


firjv 




2. 


s (o-t) 


s 


<rcu 


(TO 




3. 


at (ti) or — 


— 


Tdl 


TO 


Dual. 


2. 


TOP 


TOV 


adov 


crBov 




3. 


TOP 


rrjv 


(T0OV 


o6r]v 


PI Ml*. 


1. 
2. 


fJL€V (fl€s) 


pev (pes) 
re 


fjL€@a 


pifOa 

(T0€ 




3. 


ven iyri) 


v or o~av 


VTCll 


VTO 



Note. The forms enclosed in ( ) are primitive forms, not Attic, 
but found in other dialects. The active endings /u and <ri in the first 
and third person singular are not used in the indicative except in 
verbs in /ut, verbs in <o having no endings in these persons. The 
original ending vi of the second person singular is found only in the 
Epic 6O--0-1, thou art. In the third person singular n is Doric, as 
riO-q-Ti for riQrjGi ; and it occurs in Attic in eV-ri, lie is. In the third 
person plural v<ri always drops v and lengthens the preceding vowel, 
as in \vovcri for Xvo-i/o-t (§ 1G, 5); the original form vn is Doric, as 
(fxpovri for (jWpovcri (L&t. ferunt). The perfect indicative of all verbs, 



§113.] ENDINGS AND CONNECTING VOWELS. 85 

and the present indicative of verbs in /« (§ 125, 1, N. 2), have acn 
(for avai) in the third person plural.* 

§ 113. In the perfect and pluperfect passive and middle, 
and in the aorist passive, the terminations are added directly 
to the stem of the tense ; as XeXu-^tnt, Xc'Xv-crai, XcXv-rai ; cXeXu-/u?;i/, 
eXAu-cro ; £\v6rj-v, i\v0r]-Sj cXvtirj (§ 111). 

Note 1. Many pure verbs insert cr before all terminations not be- 
ginning with <r, in the perfect, pluperfect, and aorist passive. This is 
especially common in verbs which retain the short vowel of the stem 
(§ 106, N. 2). Thus, TeXeo), T€T€\€<r-yiai (for rereXe-/xat), ireXea-Onv, 
reXea^i/at. (See Note 4.) 

Note 2. Yerbs in v<o generally change v to a- before ft in the per- 
fect and pluperfect passive and middle, the v remaining unchanged 
before other letters. Thus, <j>alva> (root (j)dv-), Trecpacrfxai, itifyavrai, 
7T€<pdv0ai : e^dpOrjv. (See Note 4.) The regular change of v to \i 
(§ 16, 5) is very rare in verbs in va. 

For four verbs which drop v in all tenses before consonants, see 
§ 109, 3, N. 1. 

* Among the original active endings, inherited from the parent language 
of the Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, German, &c., were fit, <ti, tl, in the singular, 
and vtl in the third person plural. In the past tenses, these were first 
shortened by dropping i, and became /m, s, r, and vr, in which form they 
appear in Latin. In jxl, <n, and tl, and in the original fxes in the first per- 
son plural (compare Latin mus), we see the roots of the personal pronouns, 
/, thou, he, and we (compare /*£, ck, top, and the Epic &ju.-fies), which were 
originally appended to the verbal root, instead of being prefixed as in Eng- 
lish. These forms therefore really include the pronoun, which is common- 
ly said to be omitted. 

A comparison of the various forms of the present indicative of the verb 
to be (whose original stem is as-, in Greek and Latin es-), as it appears in 
Sanskrit, the older Greek, Latin, Old Slavic, and Lithuanian (the most 
primitive modern language, still spoken on the Baltic), will illustrate the 
Greek verbal endings. 

Singular. 





Sanskrit. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Old Slavic. 


Lithuanian. 


1. 


as-mi 


cji-fu (for k<r-y\) 


(e)s-um 


jes-mi 


es-mi 


2. 


asi 


l<r-<rL . 


es 


jesi 


esi 


3. 


as-ti 


itr-ri 

Plural 


es-t 


jes-ti 


es-ti 


1. 


s-mas 


c<r-ji€v (Dor. d\k£s) 


s-u-mus 


jes-mu 


es-me 


2. 


s-tha 


€<T-T€ 


es-tis 


jes-te 


es-te 


3. 


e-a-nti 


Wr£ (Doric) 


s-u-nt 


s-u-nti 


ee-ti 



86 



INFLECTION. 



[§ H4. 



Note 3. Such combinations as yyp, /x///z, ppx, drop the middle let- 
ter ; as iXeyxco, iXrjXcy-fiai (for iXrjXeyx-^a.^ iXrjXeyy-fiai) ; Ka/i7rro>, 

KtKClfJL- pit (for KeACa/X7T-/Xat, K€KafJLfJL-fiat) ] T€p7TG>, T€T€p-fiai (for T€T€pTr-fJLaL y 

rere/3/x-juat). See § 16, 3. 

Note 4. It will be seen that the endings before which <r is in- 
serted (as in Note 1) are the same as those before which a final 
lingual (r, 5, 6) in the stem is changed to <r (§ 16, 1 and 3), and those 
before which no cr is inserted (those beginning with cr) are those 
before which a lingual is dropped (§ 16, 2). These classes of verbs 
therefore inflect these tenses alike as regards <r, the terminations re- 
maining unchanged. On the other hand, the a before fi in necpao-fiai 
and €7T€(j)do-fxr]v (Note 2) is an irregular substitute for v of the stem ; 
which v reappears before all other letters, causing a to be dropped in 
(tOov and a6e (§ 16, 4). In the following comparison of the perfect 
passive of reXeco (reXe-) with that of nettico (neiO-) and that of (palvco 
((j)au-), the distinction is shown by the hyphens. 



Sing. 



Dual. 



Plural. 



rereXe-a-fMat 

rereXe-aac 

rereXe-(T-rat 

TereXc-crOoi' 

T€T€Xi-<T-fjLeda 

rereXe-ade 
rereXe-a-ixevoL elai 



ireireicr-fAcu 

ireirei-crai. 

ireireiG-rai 

ireirei-adov 

7T€7r€LCr-fJL€da 

Trkirei-crde 
7re7re£<7-/xez>oi elai 



ir€<pa<T-nat. 
irecpav-aai 
irecpav-rai 

ir€<pai>-0ov 

iretpda-fieda 
irecpav-de 
ire<paa-fjihoL eicrt 



§114. 



1. In all the tenses of verb in o> not included in 
§ 113, a vowel (or diphthong) called the connecting vowel stands 
between the stem and the ending. 

This vowel is added to the stem even when there is no per- 
sonal ending (§ 112, Note). 

The following are the connecting vowels of the indicative, in 
the present, future, and imperfect of all voices, and in the sec- 
ond aorist active and middle : — 

Plural. 

All voices Sf tenses. 
o 
e 
o 

The connecting vowel is a in all persons of the aorist middle ; 
and in the perfect and aorist active except the third person sin- 





Singular. 




Dual. 




Active. 


Pass. & Mid. 




Primary. Secondary/. 


All tenses. 


All voices $" tenses. 


1. 


CO o 


o 




2. 


€L 6 


e 


( 


3. 


€t € 


€ 


€ 



§ Hi.] ENDINGS AND CONNECTING VOWELS. 87 

gular, where it is e. In the pluperfect active it is ci ; but in the 
third person plural it ct or e, generally e. 

Further, the aorist active and middle retain a in the dependent 
moods and the participle, except in the second person singular of the 
imperative active. 

2. The personal endings of the indicative united with the 
connecting vowels are as follows : — 



Pres 


. &Fut 


1. 


O) 


2. 


CIS 


3. 


CI 


2. 


CT0V 


3. 


CTOV 


1. 


ofxcv 


2. 


CTC 


3. 


OVGl 



2. 


CCfOoV 


3. 


CO~6oV 


1. 


o fie 6a 


2. 


cade 


3. 


ovrai 



I. Active. 








Perf. Aor. 


Imp. 


& 2 Aor. 


Plup. 


a 




ov 


€IV 


as 




€S 


CIS 


€ 




€ 


€1 


CLTOV 




CTOV 


citov 


O.TOV a.TT)V 




CTTJV 


CITTJV 


aficv 




OfJL€V 


ClfXCV 


arc 




CTC 


CITC 


CLtTl av 




OV 


cicrav 
or caav 


Passive and Middle. 






Imp. Pass. & Mid 
& 2 Aor. Middle. 




Aor. Middle. 


0[XT]V 

i) ov (for co) 




dfirjv 

co (for ao) 


CT0 






CLTO 


CO~8oV 






acrBov 


ccrSrjv 






aoQrjv 


ofjLtfla 

€<T0C 
OVTO 






aficOa 

aaSc 

avro 



Sing. 



Dual. 



Plur, 



II. 

Pres. , Fut. , and 
Fut. Perf. 

c 1. o/jLai 

Sing. < 2. rj or ci (for cai) 

( 3. crai 



Dual. 



Plur. 



By adding these terminations to the different tense-stems (§ 111), 
all the tenses of the indicative, except those included in § 113, may 
be formed. 

For forms of the pluperfect in rj for civ, and civ for «, see § 122. 

Note 1. The endings aai and ao in the second person singular of 
the passive and middle always drop a after a connecting vowel 



88 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 115. 



(§ 16, 4, K), and are then contracted with the connecting vowel. 
Thus, \vr) or Xvei is for XtWat, Aueat ; i\vov is for eAuecro, i\vco ; iXvcrco 
(aor. middle) is for iXvaaoro, iXvaao. (See § 122, 2.) 

Note 2. A first person dual in jxeSov is found very rarely in poetry. 

Subjunctive. 

§ 115. The Subjunctive has the primary endings of the in- 
dicative, with long connecting vowels, <o, 77, and #, for © (or o), e, 
and et. 





Active. 




Passw 


e and Mic 


Idle. 


Sing. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




Sing. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


1. o> 




oofiev 




cofiai 




(DfJLtOa 


2. .,9 


TjTOV 


1]T€ 




rj (for rjac) 


tjctOov 


rjaOe 


3. 3 


rjTov 


o)(rt (for covert) 


ryrai 


TjcrOou 


covrat 



For the perfect subjunctive passive and middle, see § 98, 2. 

Note. The aorist passive subjunctive has the active terminations 
(as given above), which are contracted with the final e of the charac- 
teristic ; as XvOecOj XvOu, &c. 

Optative. 

§ 116. The Optative has the secondary terminations of the 
indicative, but usually has /u for v in the first person singular. 
The connecting vowel is regularly o ; but in the aorist active 
and middle it is a. To this the optative adds the vowel t, mak- 
ing 01 and at. In the third person plural active, e is inserted 
before v. 







Active. 




Passive and Middle 


> 




Sing. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


Sing. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


1. 


OLfJ.1 




oifiev 


oifirjv 




oifxcda 


2. 


OLS 


OLTOV 


otre 


010 


oht6ov 


oiaOe 



0. 


Ot 

Ai 


OITTJV 

jrist Active. 


Ol€V 


OITO 


Aorist Middle. 


OiVTO 


1. 


atfj.L 




aifxcv 


at/1771/ 




aifAeda 


o < 


at? 


airov 


aire 


OLO 


aurBov 


m(T0€ 


3. 


at 


airr)v 


ai€v 


airo 


aidSrjv 


aiVTO 



Tor 'the perfect optative passive and middle, see §98, 2. 



§117.] 



ENDINGS AND CONNECTING VOWELS. 



89 



Note 1. The Attic generally uses the Aeolic terminations etay, €ie, 
and eiav 7 for at?, at, ateu, in the aorist active. See the paradigm 
of \vco. 

Note 2. In certain cases the optative uses the regular secondary 
ending v in the first person singular, and o~av in the third person plu- 
ral. The endings are then always preceded by trj. This takes place 

(a.) in the aorist passive, where the characteristic 6e is contracted 
with iY] into Oetrj ; as in \v6t-irj-v, \v6eir)v. See the paradigm, where 
contracted forms of the dual and plural are given. 

(b.) in the aorist active of verbs in rjfit and coyn. See § 127, 3. 

(c.) in the present of contract verbs. Here the regular connecting 
vowel o is contracted with irj into oir), to which the endings v 1 &c, 
are added ; then the form undergoes the regular contraction with the 
final vowel of the stem. Thus, (ptke-o-trj-v, (frtkeoirjv, <j)tXoirjv] rt/xa- 
O-irj-v, TLfJLaoirjV, TifMprjv. (See § 123.) 

A few verbs have oirjv in the second perfect optative; as Trecpevya, 
7re(f>€vyoLrjv. So Q~yoir)v, 2 aor. opt. of e\<o. 

Imperative. 

§ 117. 1. The personal endings of the imperative are as 
follows : — 







Actii 


>e. 


Passive and Middle. 




Sing. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


Sing. Dual. Plural. 


2. 


6t or — 


TOV 


T€ 


(jo or o a6ov c6e 


3. 


TOD 


TCDV 


TG&aciv or ptcov 


o~6(o o~6(ov adccxrav or a6cov 



2. The regular connecting vowel of the imperative is e ; but 
before v it is o, and in the aorist active and middle it is a. The 
second person singular in the aorist active ends in ov, and in the 
aorist middle in at. The endings united with the connecting 
vowels are as follows : — 







Active. 




Passive and Middle. 




Sing. 


Dual. Plural. 


Sing. 


Dual. Plural. 


2. 


€ 


€TOV €T€ 


ov (for eo) €o~6ov eo~6e 


3. 


€TCO 


€T(OV €T(00~aV 

or ovtcov 
Aorist Active. 


eorOco 


ccrdcou €0~6cD0~av 
or ecrficDv 

Aorist Middle. 


2. 


OV 


arov are 


at 


aaOov acrBe 


3, 


area 


arcDV arcocrav 

or avTQiV 


aaSco 


avQoiv aaBcoaav 

or acrScov 



90 INFLECTION. [§ 118. 

3. 0i in the second person singular active is found only when 
no connecting vowel is used. It is retained in verbs in /u, and 
in the aorist passive (§ 113). The aorist passive adds the ordi- 
nary active terminations (6i> ro, &c.) directly to the character- 
istic 0rj (§ 110, 3), after which 6t becomes rt (§ 17, 3) ; as XvOtj-ti, 

\v6r)-T<0, &C. 

The second aorist passive adds the same terminations to the 
characteristic -q ; as o-toXt]-6i, (ttoX^-tco, &c. 

Both aorists have cptwv in the third person plural. 

Infinitive. 

§ 118. The terminations of the infinitive (including the 
connecting vowels) are as follows : — 

Present and Future Active ei-v 

Second Aorist Active Ui-v (contr. -elv) 

Perfect Active i-vai 

Aorist Active at 

Aorist Passive (no connecting vowel) vat 

Perf. Pass, and Mid. (no connecting vowel) crOai 

Aorist Middle a-o-Oai 

Other tenses, Passive and Middle c-a-Oai 

Participles and Verbals. 

§ 119. 1. The stem of the active participle ends in vt (r in 
the perfect), which is joined to the stem of the tense by the 
connecting vowel o (a in the aorist). 

The passive and middle participle ends in fxevos, preceded by 
the connecting vowel o (a in the aorist middle). The aorist pas- 
sive participle takes the active form (vt) without a connecting 
vowel ; as, \v6e-, \v6e-vr- (nom. \v6eis, § 46, 2). ■ 

Note. Participial stems in vt add o-a to form the stem of the femi- 
nine, where most adjectives add la (§ 108, 4, Note) ; as, \vovT-<ra, Xv- 
ovcra ] laraur-aa, tcrrao-a] \v6cvt-ctci, \v6eicra (§ 16, 5, N. 1). 

2. The stem of the verbal adjectives in tos and reo? is formed 
by adding to- or tco- to the stem of the verb, which has the 
same form here as in the aorist passive ; as \vt6s, Xvtcos (stems 
Xv-ro-, \v~tco-) ; TpnrTos, 7T€L(tt£os (stems r/Di7r-ro-, 7T«<7-reo-). For 
the meaning, see Syntax. 



§ 122.J PECULIAR FORMS OF TENSES. 91 

PECULIAR FORMS OF FUTURE AND AORIST. 

§ 120. 1. Liquid verbs form the future active by adding 
ceo, contracted <o, to the simple stem ; and the future middle by 
adding copai, contracted ovfiai. See the examples, § 97. 

2. Some futures in €o-o> from verbs in eco (§ 106, N. 2) drop <r 

and contract eco to co ; as, KaXeco, flit. KaXeaco, KaXeco, Kakcb ; reX/co, 

fut. reXeVco, reX/co, reXco. These futures have the same form as the 
present. 

Some futures in aaco from verbs in afo are contracted in the 
same way • as /3t/3a£o>, fut. j3t/3aa-co, /3t/3aa>, /3t/3co. So iXavuco (eXa-), 
fut. eXatrco, cXaco, eXco. So in the middle, fi.dxop.ai (/xa^e-), fut. /xa- 
^eVojitai, p,a)(€op,cii, pa^ovpat. 

3. Futures in ta-co and to-o/zai from verbs in ifa> regularly drop 
<r and insert e ; then teco and Uopai are contracted into ico and 
lovfiai ; as KOfiifa, fut. fco/ztVco, KopUco, KOfiico (Ko/ueZy, Ko/xtet, &C.) j 
KOfiiaofiai, Kopiovpai (Ko/Hft, KOfxielrai, &C.). 

The forms described in § 120, 2 and 3, are called -4^'c 
Futures. 

Note. A few verbs have a future perfect active, generally formed 
by adding oca to the stem of the perfect; as, QvrjcrKco (TeBurjKa), T€6vrj£(o ; 

UTTrj/JLl (€(TTT]Ka), €<TTT)£(D. 

§ 121. Liquid verbs form the aorist active and middle by 
adding a, aprjv, to the augmented simple stem and lengthening 

the preceding vowel (a to 77, and e to ei) ; as dyycXXco (dyyeX-) rjy- 
yetXa ; (£>aiva> (<fiau-), e<fir)va, e(j)T]vdprjv. 

Note 1. Some verbs in mvco (especially those in taivco and pmuco) 
change m to a (not a) in the aorist ; as malvco, iiriava ; ircpaiva, iiripdva ; 
K€pbaiv<D, iizepbava. 

Note 2. Three verbs, didcopi, trjpi, and ri&j/it, form the aorist in 
kcc : — eSco/ca, §/ca, eOrjKa. These forms are seldom used except in the 
indicative ; and they are most common in the singular, where the sec- 
ond aorists edcov, rju, and jfOrjv are not in use. (See § 126, 2, and § 129.) 
Even rjKdfXTjv and eBrjKaprjv occur, the latter not in Attic Greek. 

Dialectic Forms of Verbs in 12. 

§ 122. 1. Augment. The temporal augment is often omitted 
by Herodotus, and both syllabic and temporal augment by the Epic 
and Lyric poets. 

In Homer, a liquid (especially X) may be doubled, like p, after the 



92 INFLECTION. [§ 122. 

augment e; as eXkaxov for e\axov. So sometimes or] as eao-elovro 
from crelco. 

The second aorist active and middle in all the forms sometimes has 
a reduplication in Homer ; as (ppdfa, to tell, Trecjypade ; Kapvio, to labor, 
subj. K€Kafj,co] KeXofjcai, to order, KenXoprjv (for €K€\6p.rjv). The indica- 
tive here may prefix the syllabic augment to the reduplication; as 

€K€K\6fJLrjV, 67T€<fivOV (frOlll <j>€V-), €7T€(f>padoV. 

2. Terminations. Doric pes for pev, rav for tt]v, p,av for pr\v, ovtl for 
ovo-i, avri for den. Horn, rov for r-qv, odov for aOrjv, in the dual. Poetic 
pLeaOa for peBa. 

(Indicative.} When a is dropped in o~ai and <ro of the second per- 
son (§ 114, 2, N. 1), the Ionic often keeps the uncontracted forms eat, 
Tjat, ao, eo ; but eo may become ev. In Horn, crat and go sometimes 
drop cr even in the perf. and pluperf. ; as p,ep,vr]ai for pkpvr\o-ai, ecravo 
for eo~o~vo~o. 

The Ionic has iterative endings otcoi/ and aKoprjv in the imperfect, 
and in both aorists active and middle. They are added to the tense- 
stem, with e (a in first aorist) inserted after a preceding consonant ; 
as e^o), ex-ecricov ; Trcokeopai, 7Tco\€-o~K€to ) epvco, ipixr-aarKe. These forms 
denote repetition, and omit the augment. 

The Ionic has arai and aro for vrai and vto in the third person 
plural of the perfect and pluperfect, and aro for vto in the optative. 
Hdt. has arai and aro also in the present and imperfect of verbs in pi 
(§ 128). Before these endings, it, /3, k, and y are aspirated (cjf), x) ] as 
KpvnTco (fcpu/3-), K€Kpv(p-arai, \eyco, \e\ex~ciTai, AfXe^-aTo. These forms 
occur occasionally in Attic. When they are used, the periphrastic 
forms (§ 98, 1) are of course unnecessary. 

The Ionic has ea, eas, ee(v), for eiv, eis, ei, in the pluperfect; whence 
come Attic forms in rj, ns (for ea, eas), and eiv (for eev). 

The Ionic has the uncontracted forms of the future of liquid verbs 
(in eo) and eopai), and of the aorist subjunctive passive (in eo>) ; as 
peveco, XvBeco (Attic pevco, \v0a>). So in the aorist subj. act. of verbs 
in pi, the Homeric forms of which belong also to the ordinary aorist 
subj. passive. (See § 128.) 

The Doric has o-eco, creopai (contracted crco, aovpai or aevpai) for aco, 
o~opai in the future. The Attic has aovpai in the future middle of a 
few verbs ; as irXeco, to sail, Trkevaopai or TrXevo-ovpai ; nveco, to breathe, 
nvevaopai or nvev aovpai ; (pevyco, to flee, (pev^opai or (j)evijovpai ; ttltttco, 
(7T60--), only ireo-ovpai. 

In Homer, a is often doubled in the future and aorist after a short 
vowel ; as yeXdco, to laugh, e'yeXaaaa for eye \aaa. 

In Homer, rjaau in the aor. pass, indie, -often becomes ev\ as wpprj6ev 
for wpprjOrjo-av. So in the aor. active of verbs in px (§ 128). 



§ 128.] 



CONTRACT VERBS. 



93 



In Homer, the second aorist middle sometimes* omits the connect- 
ing vowel; as in aXro, aXfievos (for aXero, &c.), from aXXofMcu (aX-) 7 to 
leap. 

(Subj. and Opt.) In Homer, the subjunctive often has the short 
connecting vowels of the indicative (e and o for 77 and a>) ; as 'ioficv, 
fila-yeat (for 'Icofiev, fxio-yrjai) . In the subjunctive active, Horn, often 
has (Dfii, floSa, 770*1, for co, rjs, y. 

The Aeolic forms of the aorist optative active, etas, eie, and ciav, are 
the regular forms in all dialects; the Aeolic uses also first persons in 
eia and cifxev. 

(Infin.) Homer has cfievai and e/xei/ in the infinitive for ew; as 
dfJLwcfjLvai or dfJLvvefiev for dfivveiv ; cXOefievai or iXBifxev for eXOelv. The 
Ionic has the uncontracted second aorist infinitive in Uiv for ziv : as 
fiaXeciv, /3aXeu/J Ideew, Idelv. 






CONTRACT VERBS. 

§ 123. Verbs in aa), eco/'and oa> are contracted in the 
present and imperfect. These tenses of ri/xdco (™/za-), 
fo honor, <f>i\eco (c^Xe-), £0 Zatftf, and BrjXoco (877X0-), £0 
manifest, are thus inflected in the contracted forms : — 

Active. 
Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. 





( L 


TI/LI&) 


<j)ika> 


BtjXco 


TlfJlCO 


(piXco 


BrjXco 


s. 


2. 


rifias 


(^tXelf 


drjXols 


TLfiaS 


(fiiXfjs 


BrjXols 




(3. 


rifia 


cfriXel 


SrjXol 


TLfXa 


(fiiXfi 


BrjXol 


D. 


P- 


Tifxaroi 


» <£iXeiroz/ 


BtjXovtov 


TlflCLTOV 


<j)i\r)Tov 


BrjXcorov 




(3. 


Tifiaroi 


(frlktlTOV 


BtjXovtov 


TLfidrov 


(piXrjTOV 


BtjXcotov 




ti- 
ll 


TlflS>fl€V <filX0VIJl€P 


BrjXovfiev 


Ti/ico/xej/ 


(f)lXctifl€P 


BrjXcoficv 


P. 


TljJLCLTe 


CJ)LXelT€ 


8rjXovT€ 


Tifiare 


(fiiXrjTe 


B)]X6iT€ 




Tifioocrt. 


(friXovai 


BrjXovai 


Tt/xwcrt 


(ftiXcocri 


BrjXccort 








Present Optative. 








l L 


TlflCpfJU, 


rt/xo)7;i/ 


(fiiXdlfxi, (J)lXoitjv 


BrjXolfit, 


BrjXoirjv 


S. 


2 - 


ri/iarc, 


Tifuarjs 


(£1X019, (piXoLTjs 


BrjXois, 


BrjXoirjs 




(3. 


Tl/X<3, 


Tt/iG)77 


(plXol, <j)iX0L7] 


BnXol, 


BrjXoirf 


D. 


(2. 

f O. 


TlflCOTOV, 


TL/JL(DT]TOV 


(piXoiTov, (pLXoirjTOV 


drjXolTou, 


dr)\0LT]T0V 




TlfKDTTJV, 


TL^L(Or]Tr)V 


cf)tX0LTrjU, <filXo(.r]T7]V 


BtjXoittjv, 


Bt]X0LT]Tr]V 




r L 


TLfJL(OfJL€V, 


TLfJ.OCH][l€V 


CJ)lXoifJL€V, (j)i\0Lrjfl€lf 


3l]XolfJL€V. 


Br)X0L7]fJL€U 


P. 


I 2 ' 


TlfJLCOT€y 


TLfJLCOT]T€ 


(pcXo'ire, <fiiXolr}T€ 


o^XoIre, 


$T]Xoi7)T€ 




13. 


TIJUWCJ', 


TijJL&Tjaav 


0tXoIfV, $1 


Xoirjaav 


BtjXoUv, 


BrjXoiT]<rap 



94 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 123. 



Ml 

Dual, j J 

P H 2 3 : 

Pres. Infin. 

Sing. 1 2. 
(3. 

Dual. \ 2 ' 



rifxa 
Tifxdrco 

TLfJLCLTOV 
TL[ACIT€ 

TifxaTCDcrav 

Or TlfJL&PTCOV 

ripav (pikelv drjXovv 



Present Imperative. 
<£i'Xei 



<j>lX€LTOV 
(plXeiTCDV 

CJ)L\elT€ 

or (filXoVVTCOV 

Pres. Partic. 



Plur. 



Sing. 



Dual. 



Plur. 



Sing. 



Dual. \ % 
(3. 



Plur. 



Imperfect. 

CTtflCOV €(j)i\ovv 

CTLfiaS €(j)L\€lS 

ert/xa €(j>i\€t 

€TLfiaTOV icftikctTOP 

€TLfldTT}V €(j>i\€LTT]V 

€TljJLO»[l€V €<fil\0VlJL€V 

eVt/xare c^tXeire 

€TL}J.COV €(pl\0VV 

Passive and Middle. 
Present Indicative. 

TifJLWfiai <j)t\ov[iai 

rifxarai (friKelrai 

TifJLao-Qov cfriXeicrdov 

TLp.dcrBov (j>i\€i<r6ov 

TLfiw/JLeda (frikovixtBa 

TifiGJVTai (frikovvrai 

Present Subjunctive. 

Tifxcofxai (ptXSfxai 

rifia 0^27 

TLfidrat (fiiXTJTai 

Ti\id(j6ov (frtXrjcrSov 

TLfida6oif (piXrjcrflov 

TLfjLCdfj.€6a cj)L\cofie6a 

Tifxao-Qe cj)i\TJ<r0c 

TLfjicovrat (piXavrat 



SfjXov 
dr)\ovT(D 

8t)\ovtov 
drj\ovT<ov 
drjXovre 
SrjXovTaxrav 
or drjXovvrcov 

Tifiiov (piXoyv drjXcov 

cdfjXovv 
edrjXovs 
edrjXov 

idryXovrov 
edrjXovrrjv 

idrjXovfiev 

edr)\ovT€ 

ibrjXovu 



drjXovfiat 

$77X01 

firjXovrat 

drjXovoSov 

$rj\ov(r0ov 

8r)\oviJL€0a 

drfkovcrOe 

drjXovvrai 

drjXcofJLai 

£77X01 

drjX&Tai 

§r)XcDOT0OV 

drjXcoaSov 
Brj\a>fi€0a 

$T]X(0(t6€ 

drjXcovrai 



§ 123.] 



CONTRACT VERBS. 



95 






Sing. 



Dual. ] *' 

r 1. 

Plur. < 2. 
f o 

MI 

Du.l.jJ 

Plur. \ % 
13. 



Infin. 
Partic. 




Present Optative. 

TLfX(pfir]V (j)l\oLfJLTJV 

Tt/LlCOO (f^iXolo 

TLfAcoTO (jyiXolro 

TifxcpoQov <J)lKo1(t6ou 

TijJL(oa6rjv (jjiXoiaflrjv 

rifx^fxeda (friXoifieOa 

rificoaOe (piKoitrde 

TifJicouTo <j)i\olvTO 

Present Imperative* 

TlfACD (f)lk0V 

TijxaaSov tyiXeiaQov 

rifiaade iptXelaOe 

TifxacrBcocrav (friXeiaOcoo'av 

or Tifido-dcov or (friXcio-flav 

Present Infinitive and Participle. 



Tljld)fl€VOS 



cTtficofirjv 

€TLfxaro 

cTLfxaadov 
€TijjLd<r6r}v 

cTLfxcDfjieda 
ertfiaade 

€TLfJL(OVTO 



(ftiXcladat 
(juXovfievos 

Imperfect. 

€<fii\oviJLr)v 
icptXov 

€(f)L\€7TO 

€<piXovpi€6a 

€(pi\€7(T0€ 
€(juXoi)VTO 



$r]\0LfJLT1V 

drjXolo 
dr)\olTO 

hrjkoiaSov 
drjXoLcrSrjv 
trjXoifJicSa 

drfkolvro 

drfXov 
drjXovoSco 

brjkovvOov 
drjXovadcov 

$r]Xovcr6e 
doXovadcocrav 
or brjkovcrBtov 

SrjXovcrdat 

$T)XoV[JL€VOS 

edrfkovfJLTjv 

eBrjXov 

edrjXovTO 

ebrjXovcrSou 
edrjXovcrOrjv 

c^rjXov/ieBa 

idrjXovcrBe 

edrjXovPTO 



The uncontracted forms of these tenses are never used in Attic 
Greek. Those of verbs in aw sometimes occur in Homer ; those of 
verbs in ea> are common in Homer and Herodotus ; but those of verbs 
in oco are never used. See, however, § 124. 

£Tote 1. Dissyllabic verbs in eo contract only ee and eet. Thus 
7rXeo), to sail, has pres. 7rX€co f nXe!?, 7rXeI, ttXcltov, ttXcojjlcv, rrXclre, 
7rXf overt] imperf. eVrXcov, €7rXcty, «rXet. &c. ; infin. 7rXi7v, partic. 7rXecoj/. 



96 INFLECTION. [§ 124. 

Aew, to bind, is the only exception, and is contracted in most forms; 
as dovcri, dovfJLai, dovvraL, edovv, partic. duv, dovv. 

Xote 2. A few verbs in aco have n for a in the contracted forms ; 
as diyjfdcD, Sh^co, to thirst, Si^y, ^^fj, $i\j/r)Te ; imperf. idiyj/cov, ebfyrjs, 
e§l\l/7] ; infin. 81^1/. So fdco, to live, 7T€ivdcD, to hunger, xpdco with 
XpdofjLdL, and a few others. 

Xote 3. c Ptyoo), to shiver, has infinitive ptycoz/ (for piyovu), and other 
similar forms in co. 

Xote 4. The third person singular of the imperfect active does 
not take v movable in the contracted form ; thus ec/>i\ee or tyiXcev, 
but e(f)L\€i (never icfiiXeiv). Except expijv or xpijv (for ^xpaev, see 
Note 2), and a very few poetic forms. 

Dialectic Forms of Contract Verbs. 

§ 124. 1. (Verbs in aco.) Verbs in aco are generally contracted 
regularly in Homer and Herodotus. 

In Homer, a contracted co is often protracted into oco or coco, and a 
contracted a into ad or ad ; as opdco for opco, opooxrt for opwcri, opocoyn. 
for opcoui ; p,€voivcoco for uevoivco, r)(3cbcocra for r)(3cbcra ; 6pdaa6e for opdcrSe, 
Spaa for opci, atYidwo for aiYtwo (opt. of alrLciojjLai) . The long vowel 
(co or a) is prefixed chiefly when the preceding vowel is long, to suit 
the metre. Sometimes © becomes coo before it, as in tjPcoovtcs for 
t)/3cdvt€s; and sometimes co becomes coot, as rjfiuoipu, for rjftcpiii. 

Homer sometimes has eoi/ for aov in the imperfect. Herodotus 
changes a to e before co, ou, and ; as opeco, opeofxep, opiovcn. 

2. (Verbs in eco). Verbs in eco generally remain uncontracted in 
both Homer and Herodotus. But sometimes eo or eov becomes ev ; 
and in Homer, sometimes ee or eci becomes «. 

The Ionic often drops the connecting vowel e in the second person 
singular of the passive and middle, thus changing eeai, eeo, into cat, 
eo : as pvOeai for uvQeeai (from pvOiofiai), cpofieai and (fioftto (from 
</>o/3eo/icu), cgrjyeo (from egrjyeofiai). Besides thus omitting e> the 
forms eeai and eeo are often in Homer contracted into elai and elo\ as 
fivQelat,, alBciai, aldelo. 

In Homer, final e of the stem is often lengthened into «; as veuce'uo, 
irvelco, for veiKeco, Trveco. So ill ereXel-ero from reXeco, rcXe/co. A similar 
change takes place in eco of the aorist passive subjunctive, etc. (§ 128). 

3. (Verbs in oco.) Verbs in oco are always contracted; but Herod- 
otus sometimes has ev for ov. as in ehiKaiew, dgievpieQa. In Homer, 
protracted forms occur, which would naturally come from verbs in 
aco; as dpococTL (from dpdeo, to plough), formed as if from dpd-co, like 
opoxcri, above; so drjlocovro (from oytdco). 



§ 126.] VERBS IN MI. 97 

VERBS IN MI. 

§ 125. 1. Some pure verbs omit the connecting vowels 
in most forms of the present and imperfect, and of the 
second aorist active and middle. The terminations (§ 112) 
are added directly to the stem, the final vowel of which is 
lengthened in the singular of the present and imperfect 
indicative, and throughout the second aorist indicative, 
imperative, and infinitive. (See § 127.) 

Note 1. As the original terminations pi and <ri are retained in the 
present indicative of these verbs, they are called verbs in pi. (See 
§ 93.) The forms of the second aorist here mentioned very often do 
not belong to presents in pi, but are irregular tenses of verbs in a>. 
Such are cftrjv, eyi/o)z/, inrdpnv, from ftaivcc, yiyvQ)o~K(D, iriropai. Such 
tenses are called pi- forms. (See § 130.) 

These forms generally retain the original <rai and <ro in the second 
person passive and middle. But in the second aorist and in the sub- 
junctive and optative, a is omitted and contraction takes place ; as 
in Gov for tfeVo, Wov for cBeao. This sometimes takes place in other 
forms. The secondary tenses have <rav in the third person plural. 

Not?: 2. The third person plural has a connecting vowel a before 
vvi making dvi, which is contracted with a preceding a ; as lo-raa-i for 
to-Ta-a-vai, TiBe-dan, dido-avi, deiKvv-acri. Forms in elai, ovai, and wi, 
from stems in e, o, and v, are rare in Attic, but regular in Ionic. 

2. Many verbs in fu prefix a reduplication to the stem 
in the present and imperfect. (§ 108, 8.) This consists 
of the first consonant of the stem with c ; but stems be- 
ginning with two consonants prefix i Thus, t/%u (stem 
0e-), SiBcofic (So-), Lcrrrjfjic (<7Ta-). 

§ 126. 1. The following is a synopsis of 'larrjjit^ to set 
(.'tern era-), t/0?7/u, to 'put (stem 0e-), ScSco/ic, to give 
(stem So-), and Zeltcvvfju, to show (stem hetKvvA. 

As ta-TTjfxi wants the second aorist middle, iirpiap-qv, / bought (from 
a stem irpia- which has no present), is added ; and as dtiKiwpi wants 
the second aorist active, ZBvv, I entered (from dvvco, formed as if from 
dv-pi), is added. The optative dvrjv (contracted for dv-irjv) is found in 
Homer. Ordinary verbs in vpi have no second aorist middle, 
5 



98 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 125. 



Active. 





Indicative. ! 


Subjunctive. 


Optative. Imperative. 


Infinitive. 


Participle. 




/ LCTTTJ/ill 


icrrQ 


l(TTai7)V IJT7] 


iardvai 


Ijtcls 


Pres. 


\ TldrjULl 


rtdu) 


Tideirju tIOcl 


ridhcu 


Ti6ds 


j 8L8iOjAt 


5l5uj 


5l5o'lt)v 8i5ov 


5<.o6vai 


5i5ovs 




\ 5dKVVfAl 


SeiKvuw 


5€lKVVOlfAl 5€LKl>V 


5eLKvwai 


SeiKiftjs 




/ L7TTJV 










Imp. 


\ eridrjv 
) £5i5ojv 
\ iSeiKvvv 












/ ^crrrjv 


GT& 


(TTalrjV (TTTjOl 


(TTTjVCU. 


(TT&S 


2 Aor. 


\ [tew] 


6u 


6el7]v Ots 


Oeivai 


Gets 




] [t8w] 


5Q 


5oLr)v 56s 


5 o Ova i 


Sous 




\ iduv 


8vq) 


8vr)v (Epic) 8vdi 


8 Ova t 


5us 






Passive and Middle. 








/ IWa/xcu 

1 TL$€/JLCLl 


UrTQfJum 


L(TTaifM7]U 17T&(70 


tdTacrdai 


l(TT&/J.€VOS 


Prcs. 


TldCbfJLai 


rcdeifXTjv rldeao 


rideaOaL 


riOefxevos 




) 5i 5 0,110.1. 

\ 56LKVVJACU 


5i5Q/jlcli, 


5l5olfJLT]V 5l8oo~o 


5l8o(rda.L 


5i56jui€vos 




deuar&uftat 


8eiKi>voifAT]v deiKuvco 


SeUvvjdai 


SfLKW/ievo 




/ 1<TT&U7]V 










Imp. 


\ iriO^uiTjv 
j £5l56ixt}v 












\ i5eiKv\j/A7]v 










t €7TpiU : U7)V 


7TpL0}jULai 


7rpiai/ULr)v irptcj 


TrplaaOai 


TrpidfjLcvos 


2 Aor. 


\ iO'/JLTJV 


O&jiai 


deljxrjv 6o0 


ehOat 


Q€fJ.€J>OS 


Mid. 


J €5'jtxr)if 


5w;iai 


5oifi7jv 5ou 


56a0ai 


86p.€vos 



Note. The principal parts (§ 92) of tcn-77/xt, r/^/it, d/do/u, and 
^€LKWfiL are as follows : — 

"lcTTrjfii, (TTr)(TQ), €<TTr)<Tci, eoTTjKa, cora/Ltat, €(TTaSr}V. 
TWrjfiti 6t)(TCD, e0r]Ka (§ 121, N. 2), riQdiKa, remittal, crtdrju. 
At'Scoat, boc>(T<o x €$a)K(i deftooKCi. oVSouat, iboBrfV. 
Afifcvvfxi, Sei'^a), edeiga, oVoa^a, dideiypLcii, eB€LX@r]i>. 

2. The peculiar forms of these verbs, which are in- 
cluded in the synopsis, are thus inflected :>— 



L26.] 




VERBS 


IN 


MI. 






Indicative Active. 






Present. 




Sing. < 2. 
(3. 


COTty/M 


TiBrjpi 




diboapLi 


tarrjs 


TlOrjs 




discos 


laTrjcri 


tIBtjcfl 




dldcoai 


n»«i J 2. 


IcrraTov 


riBerop 




SLBotov 


co* 
5 


Xararov 


tlBctov 




didoTov 


f 1 

Plur.-C 2. 
(3. 


l<TTa.fl€P 


Tl6e}JL€U 




Sldofxev 


2(TTaT€ 


rWere 




8ld0T€ 


laracn 


Ti6ia.cn 




StSodcrt 



99 



delicvvs 
bciKvva-i. 

beiKWTov 
BeiKPVTOv 

d€LKUVT€ 
d€lKPVd(Ti 



1. IdTTJU 

Sing. < 2. tan]? 

3. ICTTTJ 



Imperfect. 
It16j)v 

€TL0r)S, €Tl6eiS 



[edldcouj ZSidovv IbtUvvv 



IdeUvvs 



IbeUvv 



Dual 



MTTCLTOV 



( 2. tora 
( 3. lard 



laraTijv 



ItlBctov 

€Tl6eTTJU 



zOlOOTOV 

\81doTrju 



€0€lKWTOV 

idetKvvrrjv 



Plur. 



Iff V 
. LCTTafJL€V 

Z. icrrare 
3. ta-Taa-au 



€TL0€fX€P 
€TL0€T€ 

eTiflecrav 



tBldofJLCV 
i$L8oT€ 

edidoaav 



iSclKWfJLfV 
lt)€lKVVT€ 

ZbeiKwcrav 



Second Aorist. 




Sing, i 2. €o-tt]s 



Dual. 



cderov 
I6ert)v 



pa©*] 

edorov 
idoTTjv 



€§VS 



cdvTOP 

iBvTTJV 



1. €(TTTJfJL€V WtfJLCV ZdofXCV €$Vfl€V 

{ 2. co-r^re e&re ?Sor€ eSvre 

3. ea-rrja-av eSeaav (§127, N.l) e&xraj/ (§ 127, N. 1) eoWav 



100 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 126. 



Sing. 



Dual. 



Plur. 



(TTCO 
(TTTJS 

(TTTjTOU 
(TTTJTOV 

arcofxev 

(TTrJT€ 

(Truer 1 




2. (TTTJre 



crrcoo-L 





KTTdLrjl/ 

Idratrjs 
iGTair) 

l(TTair]TOV 

lo-Taifjrrjv 

l(TTaLT]fJL€V 

io-Tair)T€ 
icrTalrjorau 

(TTCUTOV 

(TTairrju 

(TTCUJltV 

crrairc 

(TTCUSV 



Subjunctive Active. 
Present. 

TL0G) SlScO 

Tl6f]S &§(£? 

TlOrj did CO 

Tl6r\TQV hlhoHTOV 

Ti6r\rov dibcoTov 

TiOcbjxev biba>iL€v 

Ti6rJT€ dida>T€ 

TiOao-i didaxri 



Second Aorist. 

drjs 

BrjTov 
Orjrov 

6a}jJL€V 

6rJT€ 

6cQ(Tl 

Optative Active. 
Present. 

tl6sltjs 

TL0€Lrj 
Tl6€IT)TT]V 

Ti6eir]fi€V 

Ti6eir](Tav 
Or thus contracted : 

TlOflTOV 

tlBclttjv 

TiBelfxev 
■ nOelre 
tlBcUv 



Co 

Sec s 



OCOTOV 

dcorov 

Score 
dcocri 



didolrjv 
didoirjs 
dtboirj 

dldoLTJTOV 

di&oirjTrjv 

biftoirjjjLev 

di.8olr)T€ 

dtboirjcrav 

8i$o7rov 
didoLTrjv 

dibolfieu 
SiSotre 



SetKVvco 
deLKVvrj 

teiKVVTjTOV 

beiKvvrjTov 
deLKviHOjiev 

deLKVVT)T€ 

beucvvaxn, 



bvoa, &0. 

regular 



deiKvioLfxi 

deiKvvots 

detKvvoi 

heiKVVOLTOU 

heiKvvoiT-qv 

diLKVVOlfXf'f 
$€LKVVOlT€ 

deiKvvoiep 



V 



§ 126.] 









VERBS IN 


ML 


10 






Second Aorist. 






1. 


(TTalrjv 


06LTJV 




dotrjp 


bvrjp (Epic) 


2. 


(TTairjs 


Belrjg 




doiTjs 


dvrjs 


3. 


(TTalrj 


6 €11] 




dotrj 


bvrj 


2. 


(TTaiTjTOV 


BeirjTOP 




$OLT)TOP 


bvTjTOV 


3. 


araLrjTrju 


6eir)TY)v 




dotrjTrjv 


dvrjrrjp 


1. 


<rTa[r)fjL€V 


Oeirjfxeu 




doirjfxcv 


dvrjfxcv 


2. 


arairjT€ 


6elr)T€ 




doirjre 


dvrjrc 


3. 


GTairjaav 


6eir)(TCLV 




dotrjcrav 


dvrjaap 






Or thus contracted 






2. 


(TTCUTOP 


Belrop 




SoLtov 


dvrov 


3. 


CTTaLTTJV 


Beirrjp 




SoLTrjv 


bvTY]V 


1. 


GTTaLfltV 


6e7[i€it 




$OlfJL€V 


SvflCP 


2. 


(TTCUT€ 


Belre 




Sotre 


dl/T€ 


3. 


aTcuev 


6eUv 




boieu 


bvep 



Imperative Active. 



Present. 



Sing. 


V, 


ICTTri 
l<TTaTCO 


T1061 

TiBera* 


SLbov 
diboTco 


dsUvv 

beiKVVTGD 


Dual. 


\l: 


IcrTarop 

IcTTCLTCCV 


TlBtTOP 
TldcTCdP 


dlBorov 
dMroyv 


be'lKVVTOV 
beiKVVTtoP 


Plur. 


(t 


la-Tare 
laTarcocrap 


TiOere 
Ti6eTco(rai> 


dldore 
dMrccxrap 


fciKwre 
BeiKuvTcoaav 






or IcrTavTcov or TiOepTcop 


or dMvTcov 


or deiKPVPTcop 








Second Aorist. 






Sing. • 


it 


(TTtjOl 

aTrjrco 


Bis 

Birco 


So'* 
dorco 


dvBi 
dvrco 


Dual. 


\l 


aTrjrov 

(TTrjTCOV 


Berop 
Bercap 


borov 
boTcov 


dvrov 

hvTdDV 


Plur. 


!»• 


arrJTe 


Bere 


doT€ 


bl)T€ 




(3- 


crTrjTaicrav 


Bercoaap 


hoTcovav 


dvTcocrav 






or (TTavrcov or Beprcop 


or dovrav 


or dvpT(ov 








Infinitive Active. 




Pres. 




io-rdvai. 


riBivai 


dtdopat 


dfLKPvpai 


2 Aor. 




arrjvai 


Qtivai 


dovvat 


dvpai 



.02 




INFLECTION. 


[§ 






Participle Active. 




Pres. 


lards 


ridels bihovs 


beiKvvs 


2 Aor. 


(TTCLS 


6 els bovs 


bvs 



Sing. 



Dual. 



Plur. 



Sing. 



Dual. 



J 1 ' 

Plur. \ 2. 

13. 



1. torapai 

2. ta-raaai 
lararai 

t&racrdov 
IcrracrOov 

1. la-rape Ba 

2. IcrraoBe 

3. tcrravrai 



tarafjLTjv 
Ldracro 

or terra) 
icrraro 

"(ttcktBov 
i(rrdcr6r)V 

IcrrdpeBa 

laraaBe 

tcrravro 



Indicative Passive and Middle 

Present. 
rlBepcu 



{1. e7rpidpr)v 

2. €7rplco 

3. i7rplaro 

Dual. { J «rp^" 

( 0. eirpiao-orjv 

{1. enpidpeBa 

2. errpiaa-Be 

3. knpiavro 



rlBerai 

rlBecrBov 
rlBecrBov 

riBepeBa 

rlBeuBe 

rlBevrai 

Imperfect. 
lriBkpi)v 
erlBecro 

or erlBov 
irlBero 

erlBeaBov 
eriBeo-Brjv 

eriBepeBa 

irlBeaBe 

erlBevro 



oioopai 
rlBeaai or rlBrj blbocrai 
blborcu 



blbocBop 
blboaBov 

bibopeBa 

blboarBe 

blbovrcu 



ebtbop^v 
iblbocro 
or eblbov 



Second Aorist Middle. 
iBeprjv 
eBov 
eBero 



eblboro 

eblboaBov 
ibiboaBrjv 

ebibopeBa 

iblbocrBe 

iblbopro 

ebopr)v 



eBeaBov 
iBevBrjv 

eBepeBa 

eBevBe 

eBevro 



€001/ 
eboTO ' 

eboaBov 
eboaBrjv 

ebopeBa 
ZbovBc 



deiKwpai 
beiKvvcrai 
beUvvTai 

beUvvaBou 
beUwaBou 

beiKvvpeBa 
beUwcrBe 
belKwvrai 

ebeiKvvprjv 
ibeiKwo'O 

ebeUuvro 

ebeiKwcrBov 
ebeiKvvcrBr)v 

ebeacvvpeBa 

IbeUvvaBe 

ibeUvvvro 



§ 126.] 



VERBS IN ML 



103 



Sing. 



Subjunctive Passive and Middle. 
Present. 

1. lo-Tcofiat Tidco/JLai dtbcofiat d€iKWCDp.ai 

2. [(TTrj TlBrj blbto beiKVVTJ 

3. lo-Trjrai nOryrai bidcbrai 8eiKPvr]Tai 



Dual 



J 2. IcrTrjo-Qov 
\ 3. IdTrjcrdou 



Tidrjo-Qov 



diddocrdov 



heiKvv-qcrBov 



Plur. 



1. IcTTafieQa 

2. IcrrrjcrSe 

3. iaravTai. 



ridrjaOe 

Tl6(DVTCU 



ftiftaypeOa 
fodacrOe 



deucpvapeSa 

deucvvrjo-Qe 

beiKvvQVTat. 



Sing. 



1. 7Tpl(OfJLai 

2. irpiy 

3. 7rplr]Tai 



Second Aorist Middle. 
0a>/zat da>fi<u 

drjrai dmrai 



Dual. { J * p T e r 

(. «3. 7rpir)(rdov 



OrjcrBov 
Qr\<jQov 



dcocrdov 



Plur. 



1. TrpiafxtQa 

2. 7rpirjard€ 

3. 7rp[cQvrai 



6a>pe6a 

6?j<r0€ 

Gcdptcu 



dacrOe 

b&VTCLl 



Optative Passive and Middle. 



( 1. la-ratfi-qv 
Sing. \ 2. iotclIo 
( 3. ft 



KTTdLTO 



Present. 

Tl6€ip,r]V 

TiOelo 
Tidelro 



bidoiprju 

StSoio 

didoiTO 



SeiKVVOlflTjV 

SeiKvvoio 
SeiKvuoiTO 



Dual. 



2. IdTalcrOov 

3. la-TalcrOrjv 






dtScncrOov 
d(.doicr6r]v 



beiKPvoicrQov 
deiKvvoio-Qrjv 



1. IcrTciipeOa 
Plur. «< 2. ioralo-^e 



ICTTCILPTO 



TiOelvTO 



didoipeOa 

biboicrBs 

didolvro 



beiKwolpeda 

dcucpvourde 

deiKVvoivTO 



104 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 126. 



Second Aorist Middle. 




Sing. < 2. 



Dual 



rrpLaifirju 

rrpiaio 

irplaiTO 

7rpiaicrBov 
TrpiaLcrdr)v 

7Tpiaifx€6a 
irpiaurBe 

TTpiaiVTO 



6dp.rjv 

Belo 

Belro 

BfioBov 
BeicrBrjv 

BeifieBa 
Belvfie 

BfiVTO 



OOlfiTJV 

bolo 
botro 

boicrBov 
bolcrBrjv 

bolfxeBa 

bolvBe 

boivro 



Sing 



.1 



2 

(3 

Dual.]* 

Plur. | 



tcrrao-o 



Imperative Passive and Middle, 
Present. 

rlBecro 

or tiBov 
ridecrBcQ 



or terra 
laracrBay 



laracrBov 
laTaaBav 

IdTacrBe 
larder Baxrav 
or lordo-Bcov 



TiBevBov 
TiBecrBcov 

rlBeaBe 
TiBeo-Baxrav 



blbocro 

or blbov 
diboaBo* 

bibocrBov 
btboarBcou 

biboaBe 
bibocrBcocrav 



htiKWaro 

deiKwcrBco 
beiKwaBov 

&€lKVV<rB(i)V 

beUvva-Be 
betKiwcrBcocrav 



Sing. | 



Dual. 



G 



•{ 



7TplCO 

TrpidaBoa 

irpiavBov 
7rpt,d(rBa>u 



Plur. -1 ?' 7rpla(T6e 



or TiBeaBcov or bibovBa)!/ or beiKvvaBoap 

Second Aorist Middle. 

Bov 
BeaB<o 

BecrBov 
BeaBcou 

Beo-Be 



TrpidaBaxrav BecrBaxrav 
or 7rpid(rBa>v or BevBcov 



oov 
bocrBco 

bocrBov 
boaBcov 

bocrBc 
bocrBcocrav 
or boa-Btov 



Pres. 
2 A.M. 



Pres. 
2 A.M. 



Infinitive Passive and Middle, 

KTTacr&ai TiBecrBai bibouBai 

npiaaBai BecrBai bocrBai 

PaHiciple Passive and Middle, 
lardfjievos riBefievos btbofxevos 

7rpldfJL€VOS BifJLfVOS b6fJi€POS 



beUwcrBai 



d€LKPVJJL€VOS 



§ 127.] VERBS IN ML 105 

Eemark. The following remarks apply only to the tenses which 
are mentioned in § 125, 1. In other tenses verbs in /u follow the 
general rules for verbs in a> (§ 93, Note). 

§ 127. 1. Most verbs in fit may be inflected in some of 
their parts like verbs in aw, fa>, oa>, and vco. Especially, verbs in 
vpi form their present subjunctive and optative like verbs in v<*>. 
The forms iriOets, irtdet (as if from ridea), and ibidovv, ididovs, ibldov 
(as if from bMco) are much more common than the regular forms. 
(See the paradigms.) 

2. The subjunctive of verbs in rjfit and w/xt has the regular 
connecting vowels <o and r), which are contracted w T ith the final 
vowel of the stem ; as rt6a>, 6co, rt6S)fjLai, for riSea 6k<a, nOeafxat ; dtda 
for diboo. Verbs in /u from stems in a have a>, jjs, fj in the sub- 
junctive, as if from ea>, cgr, €jj; see tarrjfxt (§ 126, 2). (See also 
§ 128.) 

3. The optative active of verbs in rjfit and o>/xi is formed like 
the aorist optative passive of verbs in o>, by adding to the 
stem the secondary endings (§ 112) preceded by trj \ as lara-irj-v, 
riOe-ty-v, 8i8o-[t}-v. (See § 116, N. 2.) The optative passive and 
middle adds to the stem the regular endings preceded by t ; as 
lara-i-firjv, rtde-t-fi^v, btbo-i-firjv. The contraction here appears in 
the accent, laralo, riOelo, &c. 

4. The present imperative active commonly omits 6i in the 
second person singular, and lengthens the final vowel of the 
stem (a, e, o, v) to 17, ci, ov, v. The second aorist retains $t, ex- 
cept in 0h, bos, and es, also in a\es (from ex<»). 

5. The infinitive active adds vat to the tense-stem ; the in- 
finitive passive and middle adds aBat. Thus, lard-vat, tara-aBat ; 
arrj-vat, del-vat, bov-vat (§ 125, 1) ; 6k-a6at, bo-a6at. 

6. The stem of the participle active is formed by adding vr- 
to the tense-stem ; that of the participle passive and middle by 
adding fievo-. (See § 119, 1, and § 46.) 

Note 1. The second aorist active of two verbs, rMrjfii and bibco^xt, 
lengthens the vowel of the stem only in the infinitive; the forms 
€0rjv, ~tjs, -?;, ebcov, -a>y, -w, not being in use in the singular of the in- 
dicative. These verbs (as inflected in § 126, 2) are therefore irregu- 
lar in the indicative and imperative of this tense; the regular form 
being seen in eyvcov (stem yvo-)> which has 2 aor. act. mdic. ifyvcov, 
5* 



106 INFLECTION. [§ 128. 

-cor, -a), -<»toi>, -<0T7]v, -o*fjL€v, -core, -oaorav ; subj. yvco (like 8co), opt. yVOLTJV 
(like Solrjv), imperat. yvcoOi, yi/o>rco, yvvrov, yvarcov, yvcore, yvvraxrav ; 
infin. yi/oj^at ; partic. •yi/ous (yi/oir-). 

For three aorists in *a, see § 121, Note 2. 

ISTote 2. A few deponent verbs accent the subjunctive and opta- 
tive as if there were no contraction. Such are duuapcu, cVioTa/LLcu, 
Kpe'/xa/xat, iirpiayLnv (§ 126, 2) ; as bvpoaftai, bvvairo (not dvvapai, hvvcii- 

to) ; and sometimes other verbs in pi. 

Dialectic Forms of Verbs in ML 

§ 128. 1. Indie. Act. Doric n, vtl, for ct, vcri. Epic sometimes 
<r6a for y in 2 pers. sing. For 3 pers. plur. in eltn, ovai, i><ri, see § 125, 
K 2. Epic v for tray in 3 pers. plur., with preceding vowel short; as 
eo-rdv for earno-civ, Uv for tea-av : — in aor. pass, ev for -qa-av ; as eKoo-pr]- 
6ev for €K0(TfjLrj6T](rav. The Ionic otcoi/ and o-KOfirju (§ 122, 2) have no 
connecting vowel in verbs in fu ; as tora-ovcov. 

2. Snfy\ The Ionic sometimes leaves ea> uncontracted in the subj. 
of verbs in 77/1x4 ; as in Otaficv for 6a>p€v, biaOivvrai for dia6<ovrai. It 
forms the subj. in ceo and cco/icu even from stems in a; as crrea>/iei/ for 
orcofiev (crra-a)/zei>), imaTecovTai for inicrravTiu (eTriOTa-coi/Tat, § 127, 
N. 2). 

In Homer, when the 2 aor. act. subj. is uncontracted, the vowel of 
the stem is generally lengthened (c to « or 77, and o to a) ; in which 
case the short connecting vowels o and e are used in the dual and 
plural, except before cri (for vcri). Thus, in place of Attic 0&>, &c. and 
crrco, &C., we find #ei'a>, Belys, 6citj, BetofJicv. (tttjtjs, (TTrjTj, oreio/Aey, 7ra/3- 
o-tt)€Tov, 7r€pi(TTr}(0(TL. Also OetofACiL for 0co/iai. So, for So), &c, we 
have 8o> t 7 (also d&rjcri and So>o-i), dooofiev, Scococri. The same forms are 
found in the aor. pass. subj. (§ 115, N.) ; as daeico (for daco) from indie. 
eddnv, da/ze 117? and Sapr}]] (for dafJLJjs and Bapfj) from cbdfirjv, fiiyeirj (for 
/^uy/7) from ipiynv. 

3. Injin. and Partic. Homer has /imu and jxez/ for j/ai; as iora- 
/ifi/at or to-To. fiev, sometimes with lengthened vowel, as ri$r)-pcvai. So 
in aor. pass. 6p.oico6f]-fX€vai for SfioicoOrf-vai (from 6/xoioo), to liken). 

The participle passive and middle sometimes has rjfi€i/os for aficvos 
or e/Ltei/os in Homer; as tiB^vos- 

Irregular Verbs in MI. 

§ 139, The verbs el/u, to 6c, el/**, to go, itj/u, to send, 
$7)1x1) to say, and Kelson, to lie, are thus inflected. 



§•129.] 



VERBS IN MI. 



107 



Sili 



a-, i 2. 



I. Elfit, to he (stem ia-, Latin, esse). 
Present 

Subjunctive. 



Indicative. 

€l/JLL 



Dual. 



Plur. 



2. 
3. 






€(TTL 

CVTQV 
eCTTOV 



V 



f]TOU 
fjTOV 




0)fJL€P 

T}T€ 

OHTt 



Present Infinitive. 



efaai 



Optative. 
c'irjv 

cirj 

flrjTOV, CLTOV 
fXrjfieV, €LjJL€V 

etijo-ap, €L€V 
Pres. Partic. 



Imperative. 
tadi 

€0TG> 

t(TTQV 
Z(JT(t)V 

€OT€ 

coroxrav, 

€(TT(OV, QVTGiV 
G)I>, OU07I, OV 



Sing. 



Imperfect. 

1. fjv or rj 

2. (?*), fa$a 

3. fy 



Dual 






tjotou or i/roi/ 
fjorrjv or ^rqi/ 



I 1 * 

Plur. < 2. 

la. 



^re or ^gt* 



7^. Indicative. 

€&OflCll 

carat (poet. e<T6rai) 

€(T€adov 

icroneda 

eaeaQs 

tfaovTai 



Put. Opt. ia-oijirjv, €(roio, €<toito, &c. regular. 

Put Infin. co-fo-Oat Pat. Partic. io-oficvos 

A' middle form Tjfxrjv, I was, rarely occurs in the imperfect. 

Note. Dialects. Pres. Indie. Aeolic e/Lifti, the most primitive- 
form, nearest to iv-fju (see foot-note on p. 85). Ionic el?, Horn. eWi 
(for €i ) ; Ionic «/*/» (for eoyxeV) ; Ionic eao-t, Doric ivri (for tlcri). 
Jmperf. Horn. ?a, ea eoi> (in 1 pers. sing.) ; trjaBa (2 pers.) ; rjev. erjv, 
vt)v (3 pers.) ; ecrav (for ^rrai/). Hdt. ea, eay, eare. Ionic (iterative) 
cctkov. Future. Horn, eorro/xcu, &c., with cVcretrat. 

Su&/.. Ionic ea>, &a, eWi; Horn, also eZu. Ionic eW, col. Iinper. 
Hotn. €(7-otq (the regular form). 7??/m» Horn, c^t/iei/at, c/i€Mat, . -cftcy* 
Partic. Ionic ea>i>, ^ovora, &*>. 



108 



INFLECTION. 



[§ 129. 



II. El/M, to go (stem *-, Latin, i-re). 



Sing. 



Dual. 



Indicative. 

€lfJLl 



(1. el, 

< 2. tl 



I 3. 

(2. 

u 




eicrt 



LTOP 



vrov 



tjJL€P 

taut 



Present. 
Subjunctive. Optative. Imperative, 

to) toirjv [loijjli) 

ifls toty tOi (*? in compos.) 

*r m 3t 

f-U tot era) 



Present Infinitive. Ikvai 



1. 
2. 
3. 



ITJTOP 


HHTOP 


ITOV 


trjTOV 


loiTTJP 


trap 


"(OfJLCP 


toificv 




trjre 
tcoai 


toiT€ 

toicu 


ire 

iTocrap or Ioptqp 


vai 


Partic. la>v, 


lovaa, lop 


Imperfect. 

Dual. 


Plural. 


)a 


fj€lTOV Or TjTOV 
geiTTjv or fJTTJV 


fjcificp or jjpcp 
Wire or jjre 
jjccrap 



Sing. 

jJcip or #a 
jfets or rfCHjOa 
yet or fleiy 

The future etao/icu and the aorist clard^p are Homeric. 




Subj. Horn. IrjaOa, tgai. Opt. Horn. Uirj (for tot). Infin. Horn. 
t-ficpai or i-/iei/ (for l-ivav). 



III. "Iriiii, to send (stem e-). 

(Fut. j^o-o), Aor. §*a, Perf. e&ca, Perf. Pass, and Mid. cfcai, 
Aor. Pass. ctOrjp.) 

Active. 

Preset. 

/wcftc. 177/u, inflected like ti'%u; but m<ri in third person 
plural. 

Subj. ««, lrjs, Ifj ; &c. Op£. 2c»; p 9 * e fy ff i * €(, 7 \ & c * 

Imper. tet, tefe ; &c. /?i$ft. kW Partic. lets. 



§ 129.] VERBS IN ML 109 

Imperfect. 
iTjv, trjs, tr), &c. ; like trlOrjv : also Uis, tei. 

Second Aorist. 
Indie. No singular : Dual, ehou, cIttjv : Plur. ei]uei>, efre, cto-av. 
Subj. a>, gs, y ', tjtov, tjtou ', a>/xei/, rjre, axre. 

Opt. cirjv, €irjs, clr] ; ei//roi>, clrjTrjv ; (trjfxeu or ef/xev, eiqre or efre, 
etrjaav 01' eief. 

Imper. eV, era) ; eroi/, eTG)i> ; ere, ercaaav or evTav. 
Infin. dual. Partic. ei?, efo-a, eV. 

Passive and Middle. 

Present 
Indie, "cpai, Subj. lapai, Opt. Ui\Lr\v, Imper. Uao or tov, Infin. 
U(T0at, Partic. le/xei/oy. (All regular like n'tfe/zen, <fcc.) 

Imperfect, 
tipm inflected regularly like inOefxrjv. 

Second Aorist Middle. 
Indie, elixrjv, efo-o, etro; elaOov, eicrdrji/; ct/xetfa, ttcrOe, euro. 
Subj. hfxaty #, fjrai ; t)<t6ov ; co/ieOa, fjaOe, hvrai. 
Op£. €ifirjv, efo, etro ; etcrtfoy, etaBrjv ; (f/xe^a, efcrtfe, euro. 
Imper. ov, caBoa ; eaOov, ea6(ou ; ca-tfe, cvOaHrav or eaOav. 
Infin. ecrOcu. Partic. e/xei/os. 

Such forms as 7rpdoiTo, irpoourQ* (for 7rpoeiro, irpocivO*) sometimes 
occur, even in Attic prose. 

Note. (Dialects.) Horn. Jew for fyi/; e/xei> for eii/ai; ecav, e/x^, 
eVro, &a, by omission of augment, for eio-ay, ei/z?;i/, euro, &c. in indie. ; 
in dvirjui, fut. dpecra>, aor. avcaa. 

IV. $f?/u<, to 5ay (stem <£a-). 
Present. 
Indie. (prjfjLi, <j)rjs, (j)T)<rL ; $a7w, (j)aToi^ $a/xeV, <£are, (jbdert. 
£?£&/. <£», </>j/9, $}, &C. Qp£. <f>aii]v, <f)aiT]s, (fee. 
Imper. (f)d0i or <£a#i, </>dro) ; <\>arov, </>dra>v, tfce. 
Infin. <f)dvcu. Partic. (j>ds, <j)da-a, cj)du (not Attic). 

Imperfect. 

€<f>rjv y €(f>rj(r6a or €<£»;$, e(/>7 ; t<fxiTov, icjxLrrp/ ; e^a/iev, e$are, €(j>a<rap. 



110 



INFLECTION. 



§ 130. 



Note. Homer has some middle forms of (frrifiL; pres. imperat. (frdo, 
(pdaBco, (pdaBe ; infin. <f)daBai', partic. (frdfievos] imperfect €<pdfi7]i>. ZcpaTo 
or (pdro. These all have an active sense. 

V. KeipLcu, to lie (stem tcei-, zee-). 

Pres. IndlC. KeT^at, Kfurat, /cfirai ; KtlaBov, KtiaOov ; KelpeOa, 
KuaBe* Kelvrai. Imperf. Ik^i\xt\v, €K€iao, exfuo; €K€l<tBov, eKeiaBrjv ; 
cKeifitBA, €K€lctB€, €kclvto. Pres. Subj. and Opt. These forms oc- 
cur : KerjTai, kccovtch, Ktoiro, kcoivto. Illiper. Kflao, KtiaBco ; kclctBou, 
KticrBcov ; KelaBe, KtiaBaiaav or KtiaBcov. Infill, KelaBai. Partic. 

K€L^JL€VOS» 

Future. Kciaofiai, regular. 

Xote. Homer has Kearm, /cetarat, and Keovrai, for KeivTai ; Kenro and 
Kuaro for €K€lvto ; subj. KrjTat. Hdt. has often Keerat, KteaBai, and 
€k*€to, for Kelrat, &c. ; and always Ktarai and i^aro for Kelvrai and 
e/cetiro. 

Second Perfect and Pluperfect of the Mi-form. 

§ 130. 1. A few second perfects and pluperfects drop the 
connecting vowel, and are inflected like the present of verbs in 
fit. But they are not used in the singular of the indicative, and 
they form the participle in a>?. They are formed from stems in a. 

The principal verbs which have these forms are /3cuVg>, to go, 
2 perf. infin. fc&dvat ; 6i>r)aK<o, to die, rcBvdvai ; and iot^i, to set, 
iardvm. All these have ordinary perfects, ftz&rjKa, TeBvrjKa, ea-njKa, 
which are used in the singular of the indicative. The second 
perfect and pluperfect of to-n^i (ara-) are thus inflected : — 





f 1; 

(3. 


Indicative. 


Second Perfect. 

Subjunctive. Optative. 
iarto iaTciirjv 
i(TTr)s iirrairfs 
iarfj car nil 






Imperative. 


Sing. 




earaBt 










Dual. 


ft 


€(TTC1T0V 


iarrrjTov 
iaTrjrov 


iaTaLrjTov 
icrTatqTrjv 


or 
or 


'CUTOV 
-aiT7]U 


ZcrTarov 
iaTaTutv 


Plur. 


It 


€(TTOjl€V 
€(TT(iT€ 

tarda i 


€fTTO)fX€V 

€arrjT€ 
eaTvai 


iaTaLT]fjL€v 

earairjTt 

earalijaau 


or 
or 
or 


-cure 
~ciUv 


eartxTf 
iardrcoaau 
or evrdvTcov 



§ 130.] 



VERBS OF THE MI-FORM. 



Ill 



Infinitive, eVrdi/ai 



Participle, eVrawy, c<rrm (§ 69, Note) 

Second Pluperfect 
Dual, eoTaroi>, eararrju 
Plural. eo-Tdfxcv, eorare, ecrraaav 

Note 1. Homer has a form in -aatrt in the third person plural, as 
/3e/3uWt ; also a participle yeyaoby and some other forms of a second 
perfect of ylyvoixai of this class. 

Note 2. The Epic Sei'Sco or div, to fear, has a second perfect tedia 
(Epic Sei'&a) with many forms of this class. See the Lexicon. 

2. The second perfect oi6a, I knoiv, and its pluperfect jjdeiv, 
I biew, are thus inflected : — 



Second Perfect, 



Sing. 



13. 



Dual 



•{ 



Indicative. 
oida 

otoe 



KTTOV 

tarov 



Subjunctive. 
eldco 

&C. 

regular 



Optative. 

elbcirjs 
fldelr] 

&C. 

regular 



Imperative. 
'lad i 

LCTTCD 

"mjtqv 

L(TT(OV 




icrfiev 

n 
l(TT€ 

Xaaai 



L(TT€ 

t(TT(ocrav 



Infinitive, cldevai. 



Participle. cites (§ 68) 



Second Pluperfect. 

Sing. Dual. 

1. fjdciv or fjdr) 

2. jjdcurOi. or fjdrjcrOa ffieirov or yarov 

3. ffi*i(y) or jj&r) JJScIttjv or yarrjv 



Plural. 



f]8cifJLCU Or Tj(TfX€V 

jjdeiTC or 7)0* re 
fjdeaav or 7/0-av 



Note. The Ionic occasionally has the regular forms oldas. otdaficv, 
oi'6Wt ; and very often id/tcp for fopcv* Hdt. has future cidr'jo-o) ; Horn. 
ciaofiac, rarely etS^crco. Horn, has iSiua for clBvla in the participle. 

Ionic ffica, 7;8ee, ijdeare, — Horn. rjcidrjs, ^eiSr;, and to-ai/, — in plu- 
perfect. 

Horn, cidopcv, &c. for cldvpcv in subj. ; jft/xcvai and t^/iev in iufin. 



• •• 



112 COMPOUNDS AND PREFIXES. [§ 131, 



COMPOUND WOEDS. 

§ 131. 1. When the first part of a compound word is a 
noun or adjective, only its stem appears in the compound. The 
final vowel of a stem is dropped before another vowel. Before 
a consonant, stems of the first declension change a to o, and 
stems of the third declension add o. E. g. 

UpcoTo -tokos, 6a\aaro-o-KpdT<Dp, 7rat,do-Tpi^Tjs, vav-p.ax'ia ] X°P~ T jy < ^ s y Du ^ 
Xopo-diddo-Kakos ; obiko-o-ocfiia, (f>vo~io-\6yos, dvdpiavTO-7roios* 

Note. The exceptions to this rule are very numerous, the noun 
sometimes appearing in one of its cases as if it were a distinct word ; 
as i/eaxr-oiKos, ship-house ; vavo-L-nopos, traversed by ships. 

2. When the first part of a compound is a verb, its stem 
generally appears without change before a vowel, and with e, i, 
o, or o-i (sometimes eo-, <re, or <ro) added before a consonant. 
Such compounds are chiefly poetic. E. g. 

UtiO-apxos, dpx-i>-T€KT<ov, jiio--6-yvvos, ftei/-€-fia^os, repyjri-voos (repTT-), 
yv-ai-novos, o-Tcyj/i-diKos (orpe^-). 

3. When the first part of a compound is a preposition, its 
final vowel (except in itcpi and irpo) is dropped before a vowel ; 
as dv'dyo), oV-c^g) ; but 7r€pidyco, 7rpoaya), 

Tlpo may be contracted with a following e, as in irpovx^ for 7rpoe^Q). 
(See § 105, 1, N 1.) 

§ 132. The following inseparable particles are used only as 
prefixes : — 

1. a- (av before a vowel), called alpha privative, prefixed to 
nouns and adjectives, rarely to verbs, with a negative force, like 
English un-, Latin in- ; as a-7rais, childless, a-ypa<fios, unwritten, 
a-Otos, godless, dv-ikevOepos, unfree, dv-ai8fjs, shameless, dv-opoios, 
unlike. 

2. 8vo--, ill (opposed to cv, well), denoting difficulty or trouble ; 
as dva-nopos, hard to pass; Svo-'Tvxfc unfortunate (opposed to 

3. pr)- (Latin ne), a negative prefix; as vr]-iroivo$, unavenged; 
vrjfiepTr)?, unerring. 

Note 1. A few other intensive prefixes are sometimes used, — 
apt-, ipi-, da-, fa-, Xa- ; as dpl-yvcoros, well known ; ba-qboivos, bloody. 

Note 2. The prefix a- is rarely intensive, as in d-rei/rjs, stretched; 
or copulative (denoting union), as in a-Xo^os, bedfellow (from \ex *)- 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 

§ 133. 1. Eveey sentence must contain two parts, a 
subject and a predicate. The subject is that of which 
something is stated. The predicate is that which is stated 
of the subject. Thus in the sentence Aapeios fiaatkevec, 
Darius is king, Aapelo? is the subject and ftacrikeveb is the 
predicate. 

Note 1. When any part of clpl, to he, connects the subject with 
a following noun or adjective, the verb is called the copula, and what 
follows is called the predicate; as Aapelos ian Pavikevs, Darius is 
king, where iarl is the copula. 

Note 2. The simple subject and predicate may each be modified 
by additional words or clauses ; as Kvpo?, aKovaas a elircp, elarjXdev eh 
rrjv ivokiv, Cyrus, on hearing ivhat he said, went into the city, where 
KOpo?, aKovo-as a elivev, is the modified subject, and the rest is the 
modified predicate. 

2. That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is 
called the object, which may be either direct or indirect 
Thus, in eoWe ra ^prj/jLara ra> avhpl, lie gave the money to 
the man, xprjfiara is the direct object, and dvSpt is the 
indirect (or remote) object. 

SUBJECT AND PEEDIOATE. 

§ 134. 1. The subject of a finite verb is in the nomi- 
native ; as o dvrjp rfkdev, the man came. 

A verb in ajinite mood is called a finite verb (§ 89). 

2. The subject of the infinitive mood is in the accusa- 
tive ; as Xeyovat, rou9 av§pa<z direKOeiv^ they say that the 
men went away. 



114: SYNTAX. [§ 135. 

But the subject is very often omitted, especially when it is the 
same as that of the leading verb ; as ftovXerai ane\6elv, he wishes to go 
away. 

Note 1. The subject nominative of the first or second person is 
omitted, except when special emphasis is required. (See foot-note, 
page So.) 

The nominative of the third person is omitted, — 

(a.) When it is expressed or implied in the context ; 

(b.) When it is a general word for persons, as Xeyovai, they say, it 
is said ; 

(c.) When it is indefinite, as 6\jse rjv, it ivas late, kci\gos e^ei, it is well; 
and in passives like irapecrKevao-Tcu pot,, I am prepared {preparation has 
been made by me, like ventum est in Latin) ; also in the impersonal 
construction with the verbal in reov, as in 7T€L(tt€ov (ecrri) rw vofxcp, we 
must obey the law. 

(d.) When the verb implies its own subject, as Kvpyao-ei, the herald 
(Kr)pv£) proclaims, ecrakiny^e, the trumpeter sounded the trumpet, Kcokvei, 
a hindrance occurs. 

(e.) With verbs like vei, it rains, avrpanrei, it lightens, (relet, there is 
an earthquake (it shakes), where, however, some subject like Zevs or 
6eos was originally supplied. 

Note 2. Many verbs in the third person singular have an infini- 
tive or a sentence as their subject. These are called impersonal verbs. 
Such are del and xphi & ^ required, one ought, irpeirei and 7rpoorr]Kei, it 
is proper, evecrn and e^ean, it is possible, doicel, it seems good, o-vpftalvei, 
it happens, and the like ; as del f^as aire\6elv, we must go away (i. e. 
that we go away is required). 

The name impersonal is applied with still greater propriety (though 
less frequently) to the verbs included in (c) and (d) of Xote 1. 

Subject Noiniiiatire and Verb. 

§ 135. 1. A verb agrees with its subject nominative in 
number and person; as (eyo)) \eya>, I say, ovtos \eyei, 
this man says, ol avhpes Xeyovaiv, the men say. 

2. But a nominative in the neuter plural regularly takes 
a singular verb ; as ravra eyevero, these things happened, 
ra oifcrj/jLara eireaev, the buildings fell. So aSvvara eart, 
(or dSvvardp earc), it is impossible. 

3. A singular collective noun may take a plural verb ; as 
to 7r\rjdos e^r^laavTo 7ro\efM€tv P the majority voted for war. 



§ 137.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 115 

Note 1. Several subjects in the singular connected by and gen- 
erally have a plural verb. But the verb often agrees with one of the 
subjects (generally the nearest) and is understood with the rest, 
which generally happens when they are connected by or or nor. E. g. 

EvftfficDvovfJLev eyo) kcu ipcl?, I and you agree ; ao<fiol eyco kcu ctv rjueu, 
I and you were wise ; kcu ctv kcu ol ddeXcpol 7raprjar€, both you and your 
brothers were present. 'E/xe ovre Kcupos . . . ovt eXms ovtc (f)6(3os ovt 
dXXo ovdeu eTrrjpep, 

Note 2. If the subjects are of different persons, the verb is in the 
first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the 
third. (See examples under Note 1.) 

Note 3. A verb in the dual may follow two subjects in the sin- 
gular, or even a plural subject denoting two persons or things. But 
even a subject in the dual may have a verb in the plural. In Homer 
the dual is sometimes used for the plural. 

Note 4. Sometimes a verb agrees with the predicate nominative ; 
as al ^op^yiat Ikclvov cvdaiuovlas an /x e I 6 v i vt tv } the payments for 
choruses are a sufficient sign of prosperity. 

Predicate. 

§ 136. After verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, 
to be called, chosen, considered, and the like, a noun in the 
predicate is in the same case as the subject, both denoting 
the same person or thing. E. g. 

Ovros earl ftao-iXcvs, this man is king ; 'AXetjavdpos Seos wvopd£eTo, 
Alexander was named a God; fip£6n ct parny 6 s, he was chosen gen- 
eral ; r) 7t6\ls <f> pov p 10 v KaTearn, the city became a fortress ; Xeyovcri 
tovtov yeveoScu fiao- iXea, they say that this man was made king. 

This applies also to the case of a predicate adjective (§ 138). See, 
however, § 138, Note 8. 

APPOSITION. 

§ 137. A noun annexed to another noun to describe it 
agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. E. g. 

Aapclos 6 (Sao-iXcvs, Darius the king. 'AQijvai, ueydXrj noXis, Athens, a 
great city. 'Ypas tovs crocpovs, you, the wise ones. 'Hp-cov tcqv ' ' A6r)va[<Dv y 
of us, the Athenians. QrjfjucrTOKXris tjkco (sc. eyco), / Themistocles am 
come. $iXr)o-ios kol Avkcov ol 'A^ato/, Philesius and Lycon the Achaeans. 

Note 1. Possessive pronouns and adjectives may have a genitive 
in apposition with a genitive which they imply ; as 6 cfxos tov TaXai- 



116 SYNTAX. [§ 138. 

TTozpov /3i'o?, the life of me, miserable one : *A6rjvaio$ a>*/, noXecos rrjs fieyi- 
<tt7]s, being (a citizen) of Athens, the greatest city. So ra vfierepa avr&v 
(for ra vfjicov civtcov), your own. 

Note 2. A noun which would regularly stand in the partitive 
genitive (§ 168) sometimes takes the case of the words denoting its 
parts ; as oIkicli at p.ev 7ro\\a\ TveTTToaKeo-av, okiyai be 7r€pif}o-av, most of 
tlie houses had fallen, but a few remained (where we should expect rcbv 
oIklcdv). This is called partitive apposition. 

Note 3. A noun may be in apposition with a whole sentence, 
generally being in the nominative or accusative, according to. the case 
of the principal word of the sentence ; as 'EXevrjv Kravcofxev, MeveXeco 
\vttt)v TiiKpav, let us kill Helen, (which will be) a bitter grief to Menelaus. 

Note 4. A noun is often in apposition with the subject or the 
object of a sentence, where we use as or a like word; as Ittttol fjyovro 
6v\iara ra> c HAia>, horses were brought as offerings to the Sun (in 
active, Imrovs ayeiv Ov^iara, to bring horses as offerings). So twos 
SiSdo-KaXoL fJK€Te, as teachers of what are you come ? Many cases in- 
cluded under § 136 are really cases of apposition. See § 166, N. 1. 

ADJECTIVES. 

§ 138. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, 
number, and case. This rule applies also to the article, 
and to adjective pronouns and participles. E. g. 

*0 o-o<pbs dvfjp, the ivise man; rov o~o<fiov dvftpos, tco cro^w avbpi, rbv 
o~o(f)6v (ivdpa, tcov (rcxficop dvbpcov, &C. Ovtos 6 dvrjp, this man ; tovtov 
rod dvftpos, tovtcou tgov dvbpcby. At apuTTai doKovcrat eivai <fivo~€is, the 
natures seeming to be best. 

Kemark. The adjective may be either attributive or predicate. An 
attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without the interven- 
tion of a verb (like all the adjectives above except apio-rat). The 
predicate adjective is connected with its noun by a copula (§ 133, 1, 
Note 1) expressed or implied, or by one of the verbs included in 
§ 136, as 6 dvTjp dyaSos ecrnv, the man is good ; KaXeirat dyados, he is 
called good; ttolcIv tovs Mrjdovs dvOevels, to make the Medes (to be) 
weak. See the examples under § 142, 3. 

Note 1. (a.) An attributive adjective belonging to several nouns 
generally agrees with the nearest or the most prominent one, and is 
understood with the rest ; as rbv dyaObv avbpa kol yvvaiica, the good 
man and woman ; naurl kol Xoyco kcu p.r)x av fii by every word and device. 



§ 138.] ADJECTIVES. 117 

(b.) But such an adjective is occasionally plural if it belongs to 
several singular nouns, or dual if it belongs to two ; as o-axfipovcov 
iaTL kol avbpbs kcu yvvaiKos ovtcd iroifiv, it is the part of prudent (per- 
sons) both men and women thus to do. 

Note 2. (a.) A predicate adjective is regularly plural if it belongs 
to several singular nouns, or dual if it belongs to two. If the"^nouns 
are of different genders, the adjective is commonly masculine if one 
of the nouns denotes a male person, and commonly neuter if all de- 
note things. 

(b.) But it sometimes follows both the gender and number of the 
nearest or most prominent noun. 

(c.) A predicate adjective is sometimes neuter, being used like a 
noun (§ 139), when its noun is masculine or feminine; as Kakov r) 
aXrjOeLa, a beautiful thing is truth, 

Note 3. A collective noun in the singular may take a plural parti- 
ciple ; as Tpolav iXopres 'Apyelcov oroXos, the Ar gives' army having taken 
Troy. 

Note 4. An adjective may conform to the real rather than the 
grammatical gender of a noun denoting a person ; as c^tXc riicvov, dear 
child ! 

Note 5. The masculine form of the dual is very often used for the 
feminine in adjective pronouns and the article. Especially rare are 
the fern ini nes rd, ravra. 

Note 6. Avo, two, is often used with a plural noun. "Oo-cre, the 
eyes, and dovpe, two spears, m Homer, may have plural adjectives. 

Note 7. An adjective, especially a numeral, is often used where 
we should use an adverb ; as ovtol vo-re poi dcfrlKovro, these came 
later; Zhovtcs rj\6ov, they came willingly. 

Note 8. When the subject of an infinitive is not expressed (§ 134, 2), 
adjective words referring to the omitted subject are put in the case in 
which that subject last occurred (either expressed or understood) ; as 
6 7raTT)p (3ov\€tcil elvai votyos, the father wishes to be wise ; (but /SouAerat 
tqv vlbv elvai crcxfiov, he wishes that his son may be ivise, or ffovXeTcu eav- 
tov elvcu crcxfiov). npeVet avrco elvai 7rpo6vpL(p, it becomes him to be 
eager; ovx ojnoXoy^o-a) axXnTos t\kziv, I shall not admit that 1 am come 
uninvited; ovk €(pn avros, 6XX eKelvov o-Tparnyew, he said that not (lie) 
himself, but he (Nicias) was general (avros is adjective, § 145). 

The same principle applies to predicate nouns ; as noXKol ra>v irpocr- 
7roLncrafX6vcop tlvai o-o<fiio~T(ov, many of those who pretended to be sophists. 

The accusative, however, sometimes occurs in sentences like these. 



113 SYNTAX. [§ 139. 

Adjective used as a Noun* 

§ 139. 1- An adjective or participle may be used as a 
noun, its noun being understood ; as cfriXos, a friend (for <j)LXos 
avrjp), ol kcikoi, the bad, rots dyaOols, to the good; tcov Kparovvrcov, of 
those in power. 

2. The neuter singular of an adjective with the article is 
often used as an abstract noun ; as to KaXov, beauty (= KaXXos), 
to dUaiov, justice (= binaiocrvvq). 

Note. The participle, which is a verbal adjective, may be thus 
used for the infinitive, which is a verbal noun; as to Sehios, fear 
(== to deduvai) ; iv r<5 firj fieXercovTi, in the not practising (= iv rco fir) 
fieXerav). 

THE AETICLE. 

Homeric Use of the Article. 

§ 140. In the oldest Greek (as in Homer) the article 
appears generally as a demonstrative or personal pronoun, 
sometimes as a relative. E. g. 

Trjv 5* iycb ov Xvcrco, but I will not free her ; tov be kXvc 3>otj3os 
'AnoXXwv, and Phoebus Apollo heard him ; 6 yap rjXQe Boas earl vrjas 
'Axcilcov, for he came, &c. As relative, irvpa 7roXXd to. naUro, many 
fires which were burning ; bcopa tcl cdco/cav, gifts which they gave. 

Note 1. Even in Homer, the article is used with adjectives and 
participles as in Attic Greek ; as ol yap apicrroi iv vrjvcriv Ktarai, for the 
bravest sit in the ships : ol aXXoi, the others ; to. t copra to. t ecro/xeya, 
both things that are and things that are to be. 

Note 2. When the article is used with nouns in Homer, it is gen- 
erally a pronoun, with which the noun is in apposition ; as 6 S' efipaxe 
XaXKeos"Apr)$, and he — brazen Ares — roared; rj S* dticovv dfia rotfcri 
yvvr) kUv, and she — the woman — went with them unwilling. 

Nearer the Attic use of the article are examples like these : avrap 6 
Tolcrc yipcav 686v fjyepovcvev, but he — the old man — showed them the way ; 
tov S' olov izarip evpov, and he found him — the father — alone. 

Hardly, if at all, to be distinguished from the Attic article is that 
found in examples like these : ore drj rrjv vrjcrov dcfyUero, when now he 
came to the island ; to re vOivos 'Qpioovos, and the might of Orion ; al 8£ 
yvvalices lo-rap-evai 6avpa£ov, and the women standing wondered. 

It is therefore often difficult to decide the exact force of an article 
in early Greek. The above examples show a gradual transition, even 
in Homer, from the original pronoun to the true definite article. 



§141.] THE ARTICLE. 119 

Note 3. The last examples in Note 2 are exceptional, and in such 
cases the nouns usually stand without the article in Homer, as in 
Latin. Thus beivrj dq Kkayy) yiver dpyvpeoio fiioio would in Attic 
Greek require r) icXayyr) and rod /3ioi). 

Note 4. Herodotus generally uses the forms of the article begin- 
ning with r in the place of the ordinary relative, — of which he uses 
only the forms os, fj, ol, and al, except after prepositions. Thus opvis 
loos, r<a ovvopa Solvit;, a sacred bird, whose name is Phoenix. In other 
respects he uses the article as it is used in Attic prose. 

The Lyric poets follow the Homeric usage more closely with re- 
spect to the article; and the Attic poets, especially in the chorus, 
admit Homeric uses. 

Attic Use of the Article. 

§ 141, In Attic Greek the article generally corresponds 
to the English definite article the; as 6 avr\p, the man; 
tcov 7r6\ecov, of the cities ; roU "EXkrjo-tv, to the Greeks. 

Note 1. The Greek uses the article in certain cases in which the 
English omits it. Such are the following : — - 

(a.) Proper names may take the article ; as 6 2coKpaT7js, Socrates. 

(b.) Abstract nouns generally take the article ; as rj dptrr), virtue, 
i) hiKaiovvvr), Justice (also hiKaioo~vvn). 

(c.) Nouns qualified by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun 
regularly take the article ; as ovtos 6 dvrjp, this man ; 6 iiios 7raTr)p, my 
father ; nepl rrjs f)p.€T€pas 7rd\ea)?, about our state. (See § 142, 4.) 

(d.) The article may precede toiovtos, too-ovtos, Toioo-Se, and rrjXi- 
kovtos ; as tqv tolovtov avdpa, such a man. It always precedes heiva, 
such a one. 

Note 2. The article is sometimes used where we use a possessive 
pronoun ; as epxerat Navbavrj 7rpos top 7rar€pa, Mandane comes to her 
father (lit. to the father). 

Note 3. An adverb, a preposition with its case, or any similar 
expression, may be used with the article to qualify a noun, like an 
attributive adjective; as ol rore avQpayiroi, the men of that time: rov 
77aKai KdBfiov, of ancient Cadmus ; ol iv aoret 'AOrjvaioi, the Athenians 
in the city. 

Here a noun denoting men or things is often omitted ; as ol iv ao-rei, 
those in the city ; rois Tore, to those of that time ; ol dficfn WXarcova, those 
about Plato (generally Plato and his school, or simply Plato). 

Note 4. The nouns yrj, land, 7rpdyfjLaTa, things or affairs,~vl6$, son, 



120 SYNTAX. [§ 142. 

and sometimes other nouns easily understood, may be omitted after 
the article, when a qualifying adjective or genitive is added ; as els 
tt)v iavTcov (sc. yrjv), to their own land; ck ttjs TrepioiKidos, from the 
neighboring country ; tcl ttjs 7roXea>?, the affairs of the state ; UcpucKrjs 6 
SavOimrov (sc. vlos), Pericles, the son of Xanthippus. Expressions like 
ra ttjs Ti>xns, to. ttjs opyrjs, sometimes do not differ from Tvxq, Fortune, 
and opyi), wrath. 

Note 5. Instead of repeating a noun with adjuncts in the same 
sentence, it is sufficient to repeat its article ; as ol tq>v ttoKltcov iraibes 
kclX ol Tcov dWcov, the children of the citizens and those of the others. 

Note 6. The infinitive, like any other verbal noun, may take a 
neuter article ; as to elbevat,, the knowing : crot to /xj) crtyrja-at Xonrov rjv, 
it remained for you not to be silent. 

In like manner a neuter article may precede a whole clause consid- 
ered as a noun; as to yv<o6i gclvtov iravra-)(ov 'art xpr)aiji6v t the 
saying "know thyself" is everywhere useful. 

Position of the Article. 

§ 142. 1. An attributive adjective or other expression 
qualifying a noun (except a partitive genitive) commonly 
stands between the article and the noun. E. g. 

l O cro<p6s dv7]p, the wise man ; ol Iv acrrct avBpccnroi, the men in the city ; 
ovfels tcov tot6 'EWrjvoov, none of the Greeks of that time ; ch tt)v iiceiiHDV 
noXiv, into their city: ol tg>v Qn^aicov crrpar^yoi, the generals of the The- 
bans. (See below, Note 2.) 

Two or even three articles may thus come together; as tovs to. ttjs 
7roXeo>? €xovras t those who have the control of the state. 

2. The article together with any of these expressions 
may follow the noun for the sake of emphasis, in which 
case the noun itself may have another article before it. 
Kg. 

'Avqp 6 o-o(f)6s, or 6 dvr)p 6 <ro<f)6s, the toise man (not, however, 6 dur)p 
crowds', see § 142, 3) ; al TroXeis al hnuoKpaTovpLevai, the states which are 
under a democracy; avdpomoi ol totc, the men of that time; npos dduclav 
ttjv aKpaTov, ivith regard to pure injustice. 

Note 1. The article may be separated from its noun by fiev, 67, re, 
y€, yap, Si), and sometimes by other words. 

Note 2. The partitive genitive (§ 168) never stands in either of 
the positions here mentioned, but either precedes or follows the gov- 



§ 142.] THE ARTICLE. 121 

erning noun and its article ; as ol kcikoI tcov tto\itcov, the bad among the 
citizens (never ol tcov ttoKltcov kclkoi). Even the other forms of the 
adnominal genitive occasionally have this position, as rCav Trakaicov 17 
(JH\oo-o(f)ia, the philosophy of the ancients. 

Note 3. "AXkos with the article means the rest ; as 17 aXXij 7roXc?, 
the rest of the slate (but aXXrj noXis, another state). 

IloXvs with the article generally means the greater part, especially 
in ol 7ro\\oi, the multitude, the majority, and to noXv, the greater part. 
So in the comparative, ol ttXc loves, the majority, to ifKelov, the greater 
part. 

Note 4. When a noun has two or more qualifying words, each of 
them may take an article and stand in either of the above positions 
(1 or 2), or all may stand between the article and the noun; as 
f) 'Attlkt) r) 7ra\aia cpcovrj, the ancient Attic speech; tcl t€l)(tj to. eavrcov 
tcl ficiKpd) their own long ivalls ; eirepnov els tcls aXXas ' ApKaducas noXeis, 
they sent to the other Arcadian cities; 17 vtt 'ApeTtjs 'Hpaickeovs iralbev- 
cris, the instruction of Hercules by Virtue. 

Note 5. The Greeks commonly said the Euphrates river, tov Ev- 
cj)paTTjv noTapLov, &c, rather than the river Euphrates. So sometimes 
with names of cities and mountains (rarely islands). 

3. When an adjective either precedes the article, or 
follows the noun without taking an article, it forms a pred- 
icate, some part of el/u, to be, being understood or implied. 
E.g. 

c O dvrjp ao<p6s or crocpds 6 dvrjp (sc. €cttlv), the man is wise, or ivise 
is the man. ILoWoi ol wavovpyoi, many are the evil doers. 'Ecfinpepovs 
ye tcls Ti>xas KCKTrjpeOa, ice possess our fortunes for a day (sc. ovcras). 

The predicate force of such adjectives can often be expressed by a 
periphrasis ; as tols Xoyois (3paxvTepois ixprjro, the words which he used 
litre shorter, lit. he used the words {they being) shorter ; rjyovvro civtovo- 
ficov tcov $-vp.p.dx<*>v, they presided over their allies (they being) indepen- 
dent, i. e. the allies over whom they presided were independent. So ttqctov 
ayei to a-rpdrevpLa ; how great is the army which he is bringing ? 

4. A demonstrative pronoun either precedes the arti- 
cle and its noun, or follows the noun like a predicate ad- 
jective (3). The article is seldom omitted here in Attic 
prose. E. g. 

Ovtos 6 dvrjp, this man, or 6 dvrjp ovtos (never 6 ovtos dvrjp). Uepl 
tovtcov tcov irokecov, about these cities. If an adjective or other qualify- 
6 



122 SYNTAX. [§ 143. 

ing word is added, this rule is not always observed ; as fj a-reprj avrrj 
oSoy, this narrow road. 

This rule applies also to €kckttos, eKarepos, ap<f><o, and dptyorepos. 
But with €kckttos the article may be omitted. See also § 141, N. 1. 

Note 1. Has and crvpnas, all, and oXos, whole, generally have the 
same position as a demonstrative; as iravres ol ai>8pes or ol avdpcs 
irdvT€s 1 all the men ; oXtj r) tt6\i$ or r) ttoXls 0X77, all the city. But they 
can also be used like attributive adjectives, preceded by the article; 
as 7) naa-a 2iKeXia, the ivhole of Sicily, to 6\ov yzvos, the entire race. 

The distinction here was probably not greater than that between 
all the city and the whole city in English. We find even ol irdvres 
7roXiraL, the ivhole body of citizens. 

Note 2. Avtos as an intensive pronoun, ipse, has the position of 
a demonstrative; as avros 6 dvr)p, the man himself. See § 145, and 

§ 79, 2. 

Note 3. The genitive of the personal pronoun (whether partitive 
or not) either precedes the article or follows the noun, while the 
genitive of other pronouns (unless it is partitive) follows the article ; 
as rjfxcov rj 7ro\is or rj 7t6Kls rjpcav, our city (not ^ J/zwi/ irokis) ; 
li€T€7T€fiyffaTO 'AaTvayns ttjv i avrov Ovyarepa teal t6v iralba avrrj s, 
Astyages sent for his own daughter and her son. 

Note 4. The adjectives aicpos, peo-os, and eaxaros, when they are 
in the predicate position (3), mean the top (or extremity), the middle, 
the last, of the thing which their nouns denote ; as pear) tj dyopd, the 
middle of the market (while fj pear) dyopd would mean the middle mar- 
ket) ; aKpa rj x €l Pi the extremity of the hand. 

The article here may be omitted entirely. 

Pronominal Article in Attic Greek, 

§ 143. 1. In Attic prose the article retains its original 
demonstrative force chiefly in the expression fiev .... 
6 8 e, the one . . . .the other. E. g. 

c O pev ovdev, 6 8e no\\d Kepdaivei, one man gains nothing, another 
gains much. Ael tovs pev elvai dvarvx^s, tovs & evrvx^s, some must be 
unfortunate, and others fortunate. Toav 7roXea>i> ai pev rvpavvovvrai, al 
fie b-qpoKpciTovirrai, of states, some are governed by tyrants, others by de- 
mocracies. 

Note 1. The neuter to piv . . . to de may be used adverbially, 
partly . . . partly. For tovto piv . . . tovto fie in this sense, see § 148, 
Note 4. 



§ 145.] PRONOUNS. 123 

Note 2. e O 8e, &c., sometimes means and he, but he, &c, even 
when no 6 fxev precedes ; as *lvdp<o$ 'AOrjvaiovs innyctyero • 61 b)e ♦ . • 
rjkBov, Inaros called in Athenians ; and they came. 

2. A few other relics of the demonstrative meaning of 
the article are found in Attic, chiefly the following : — 

Tov Kai tov, this man and that; to Ka\ to, this and that; to. kcu to., 
these and those ; as ebei yap to kcu to 7ron}crai, ku\ to fir) Tvoirjo-ai, for 
ive ought to have done this thing and that, and not to have done the other. 

11/30 tov (or irpoTov), before this, formerly \ 

Kai tov or k<i\ ttjv, before an infinitive; as kol tov KeXevaai dovvai 
(sc. Aeyerai), and (it is said) he commanded him to give it. Xen. Cyr. 
I. 3, 9. 

So occasionally t<o, therefore, which, is common in Homer. 



PBOETOUNS. 

PERSONAL AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 144, 1. The nominative of the personal pronouns is 
seldom used, except for emphasis. (See § 134, K 1.) 

Note. The forms e/xou, ipol, and e/xe are more emphatic than the 
enclitics pov, /W, /xe. But the latter seldom occur after prepositions, 
except in npos p.€. 

2. The pronouns of the third person, ov, ol, e, &c. are 
generally personal pronouns in Ionic Greek, but sometimes 
reflexives. In Attic Greek these pronouns are generally 
indirect reflexives, — that is, in a dependent clause, refer- 
ring to the subject of the leading clause; as tovto oi ooero 
Xpfjvat %X eiv ) he thought that he ought to have this. 

Note. The forms ov and e are chiefly Epic. The orators seldom 
use any cases of these pronouns. 

§ 145. 1. Avtos in all its cases may be an intensive 
adjective pronoun, himself, herself, itself, themselves. This 
is always its force in the nominative of all numbers. E. g. 

Avros 6 o-Tpa-rnyos, the general himself; en avrols rotr alyiaXoU, 
on the very coasts ; imo-Tfjun clvtti, knowledge itself 



124 SYNTAX. [§ 146. 

A pronoun with which avros agrees is often omitted; as ravra 
€7Tol€It€ avroL (sc. vpels), you did this yourselves ; 7rXeu0reoi> els ravras 
avrols Ipfiacnv (sc. vp.lv), you must sail, embarking on these yourselves 
(i. e. in person). So avros etfin (ipse dixit), himself said it (i. e. the 
master). 

2. The oblique cases of avros are the ordinary personal 
pronouns of the third person. E. g. 

2rparr)y6v avrov dnibei^e, he designated him as general. See four 
other examples in Xen. A nab. I. 1, 2 and 3. 

For 6 avros, the same, see § 79, 2. For plv, vlv, and o-<£e, see § 79, 1, 

Note 2. 

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 146, The reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of 
the clause in which they stand. Sometimes, in a depend- 
ent clause, they refer to the subject of the leading verb, — 
i. e. they are indirect reflexives. E. g. 

TvcdBl o- avrov, know thyself; iweafpa^ev i avrov, he slew himself; 
ra apto-ra fBovXeveaOe vp.lv avrols, take the best counsel for your- 
selves. '0 rvpavvos vopl^ei rovs 7ro\iras vrrnperelv iavrS, the tyrant 
thinks that the citizens are servants to himself 

Note 1. Occasionally a reflexive refers to some emphatic word 
which is not the subject; as drro o- avrov eyw ere Sei'£a>, I will show 
you from your own case (from yourself). In fact, these pronouns cor- 
respond almost exactly in their use to the English myself thyself 
himself &c. 

Note 2. The third person of the reflexive is sometimes used for 
the first or second; as del rjpids dvepecrOai iavrovs, we must ask our- 
selves. 

Note 3. The reflexive is sometimes used for the reciprocal (§ 81) ; 
Sidkey6p.e6a rj p.lv avrols, toe discourse with one another (i. e. among 
ourselves). 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 147. The possessive pronouns are generally equiva- 
lent to the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns. 
Thus r)fA€T€po$ irarrip =z 6 irarr)p rjacov. our father 
(§ 167, 1). 

For nouns and adjectives agreeing with the genitive implied in a 
possessive, see § 137, N. 1, 



§ 149.] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 125 

Note 1. The possessive is occasionally equivalent to the objective 
genitive of the personal pronoun; as f) e/17 evvoia, which commonly 
means my good-will (towards others), rarely means good-will (shown) 
to me. 

Note 2. In Attic prose, o-c^erepoy, their, is always reflexive, and 
6s, his, her, its, is not used at all. (See § 144, 2.) 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 148. Ovtos and oSe > this, generally refer to what is 

near or present; eicelvo^^ that, refers to what is more 

remote. 

Note 1. The distinction between ovtos and oSe, both of which 
correspond to our this, must be learned by practice. In the histo- 
rians, ovtos (with tolovtos, toctovtos, and ovtcos) regularly refers to a 
Speech just made, while ode (with roioo-de, roo-oade, and fade) refers to 
one about to be made ; as tclBc elirev, he spoke as follows, but ravra 
emeu, thus he spoke (said after the speech). 

Note 2. Ovtos is sometimes an exclamation ; as ovtos, ti irouls ; 
You there ! what are you doing ? 

Note 3. The Greek has no word exactly corresponding to the 
unemphatic demonstrative often used in English as the antecedent of 
a relative, as / saw those who ivere present. Here a participle with the 
article is generally used ; as cldov tovs irapovTas ; if a demonstrative is 
used (elbov tovtovs ot 7raprjo-av, I saw these men who were present), it 
has special emphasis. A relative with omitted antecedent sometimes 
expresses the sense required ; as elbov ovs tXafiev, I saw (those) whom 
he took (§ 152). 

• Note 4. ToOro /xeV . . . tovto Se, first . . . secondly, partly . . . partly, 
is used nearly in the sense of to [xiv . . . to hi (§ 143, 1, N. 1), espe- 
cially by Herodotus. 

For ovtoo-'l, obi, eiceivoo-l, ourcocri, a>bi, &C, see § 83, N. 2. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

§ 149, 1. The interrogative r/? ; who ? what ? may be 
either substantive or adjective ; as rtvas elSov ; vjJwm did I 
see ? or rivas avSpas elBov ; what men did I see ? 

2. TV9 may be used both in direct and in indirect ques- 
tions ; as rl fiovXerai ; ivhat does he want ? — epcora re 
fiovXeade, he asks what you ivant. 



126 SYNTAX. [§ 150. 

In indirect questions, however, the relative ootis is more common; 
as epcora 6 tl (3ov\€crfl€» 

Note. The same principles apply to the adjectives nocros, &c. 
(§ 87, 1). 

INDEFINITE PKONOUN. 

§ 150. The indefinite rls generally means some, any, 
and may be either substantive or adjective ; as tovto \eyet 
™?, some one says this ; avOpcoiros tj?, some man. It is 
sometimes nearly equivalent to the English a or an; as 
elSov avdpooirov tlvcl, I saw a certain man, or I saw a man. 

Note. Occasionally t\s means every one, like iras tls', as tv pev tls 
t)6pv On^dadco, let every one sharpen well his spear. Horn. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 151. A relative agrees with its antecedent in gender 

and number ; but its case depends on the construction of 

the clause in which it stands. E. g. 

Eidov tovs civdpas ot vcrTepov rfkBov, I saw the men who came after- 
wards ; oi civdpcs ovs elbes a7rr)\6ov, the man whom you saw went away. 

Note 1. The relative follows the person of the antecedent ; as 
vpcls ot tovto 7rotetre, you who do this; iycb bs tovto iiro in a a, 
I ivho did this. 

Note 2. A relative referring to several antecedents follows the 
rule given for predicate adjectives (§ 138, N. 2). It may be plural 
if it refers to a collective noun (§ 138, N. 3) ; as to ttXtjOos otnep 
diicdvovcriv, the multitude who will judge. 

Note 3. In Homer the forms of the relative are sometimes used 
as demonstrative pronouns, like the article (§ 140) ; as kcu bs Scvtcitos 
r}\6€, and he came second ; b yap yepas eWl OavovTcov, for this is the 
right of the dead. 

A few similar expressions occur in Attic prose, especially the Pla- 
tonic rf d y os, said he (where rj is imperfect of rjpi, to say). So kcu or, 
and he, kcli ot, and they, and (in Herod.) bs kcu os, this man and that. 
(Compare tov kcu top, § 143, 2.) So also bs uiv . . . bs Se, in the 
oblique cases, may be used for 6 pev ... 6 6V. 

Note 4. In the Epic and Lyric poets, the enclitic re is often 
appended to relative words without affecting their meaning; as ovk 
diets a T€ <pT]cri, dost thou not perceive what he says? 



§ 153.] EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 127 

But otos re in Attic Greek means able, capable, like bvvaros, being 
really elliptical for tolovtos olos, such as, and re having no apparent 
force. 

Omission of the Antecedent* 

§ 152. The antecedent of a relative may be omitted 
when it can easily be supplied from the context. E. g. 

*EXa/3ei/ a e/Sovkero, he took ivhat he wished ; eVeidei' ottoctovs idvvaro, 
he persuaded as many as he could (for too-ovtovs onoaovs). J Eyh ko! 
hv iyco Kpara) fievovfiev napa aol, I and those whom I command will 
remain with you, 

Note 1. Most relative adverbs regularly omit the antecedent; as 
rjkBev ore tovto eldev, he came when he saw this (for then, when). 

Note 2. The following expressions . belong here: — eariv oi 
(sometimes elvlv oi), sunt qui, there are (those) who, i. e. some; — 
€vioi (from eVt, = cvcctti or eVeio"t, and oi) some ; — iv lot e (ei/i and 
ore), sometimes: — eamv ov, somewhere; — co-tip #, in some way; 
— eariv ottoos, somehow. 

Assimilation and .Attraction. 

§ 153. When a relative would naturally be in the 
accusative as the object of a verb, it is generally assimi- 
lated to the case of its antecedent if this is a genitive 
or dative. E. g. 

'Ek tcov 7t6\€(dv h v e^ei, from the cities which he holds (for as e^et) ; 
rots dyaOols ols e'xoficv, with the good things which we have (for a 
exofiev). This is often called attraction. 

Note 1. When the antecedent would be a demonstrative pronoun, 
it is generally omitted; as e'o^Xwo-e tovto ols eirparre^ he showed this 
by what he did (i. e. £k€ivois a); uvv ols e^a) to, aKpa KaraK^ofiaL, 
I will seize the heights with these whom I have (i. e. crvv tovtols ovs e^a)) ; 
ovdev hv ftovXeaSe 7rpd£ere, you will do none of the things which you 
wish (for e'fceiW a). See § 148, N. 3. 

Note 2. A relative is very seldom assimilated from any other 
construction than that of the object accusative, or into any other case 
than the genitive or dative. Yet exceptions occur; as hv tjttlotcl 
7roXXovy, many of those whom he distrusted (for ckclvcov ols)- Even the 
nominative may be assimilated ; as* jSkcnnreo-Oai a<ft hv rjyuv 7rap€o-Kev- 
ao~Tai, to be injured by what has been prepared by us (for dii ckclvcov a). 
Thuc. 



128 SYNTAX. [§ 154. 

Note 3. A like assimilation takes place in relative adverbs; as 
di€Ko/jLi£ovTo evOiis odev vne^eSevTo rraldas kol yvvaiKas, they immedi- 
ately brought over their children and women from the place in which they 
had placed them for safety (where oOev, from which, stands for iiceWev 
ol. from the place whither). Thuc. 

Note 4. The antecedent occasionally is assimilated to the case of 
the relative, when this immediately follows ; as eXeyov on navTcov 
a> v hiovrai TrenpayoTes elev, they said that they had done all things which 
they needed (where navrcov fav is very irregularly used for ndvra lav). 

This inverted assimlation takes place in ovdeus 6 orris ou, every- 
body, in which ovdels follows the case of the relative; as ovdevc orcp 
ovk diroKpLPeTat (for ovdeis €(ttl orco), he replies to everybody, 

Note 5. A peculiar assimilation occurs in certain expressions with 
olos] as x a P l C €(T ^ al *^ °~ ot avdpi, to please a man like you (for tolov- 
to) olos crv). 

§ 154. The antecedent is often attracted into the rela- 
tive clause, and agrees with the relative. E. g. 

M^ dqbeXrjade vficov avrcov rjv KeKTncrBe bo^av KaXrjv, do not take 
from yourselves the good reputation which you have gained (for rrju 
$6 {-av KakrjV rj v KeKTrjo-Oe. *E£ rj s to npcoTov ecr^e yvvaiKos, from the 
wife which he had at first. 

Note. This attraction may be joined with assimilation (§ 153); as 
dfjLaOearaToi iare a>v eycb clda 'EWfjvcov, you are the most ignorant of the 
Greeks whom I know : crvv fj efve bvvdfxei, with the force ivhich he had 
(for crvv rfj bwdfiei r)v et^ei/). So enteral cpevycov bv rjyes fxaprvpa, the 
witness whom you brought (for 6 fidprvs bv rjyes), &c. 

Relative in Exclamations* &c. 

§ 155. Olos, ocros, and &>9 are used in exclamations ; as 
Oct a irpajfiara ej^eis, how much trouble you have ! 
For the relative in indirect questions, see § 149, 2. 

Relative not repeated. 

§ 156. A relative is seldom repeated in a new case in the 
same sentence, but a personal or demonstrative pronoun com- 
monly takes its place. E. g. 

'E/ceZVoi Toivvv, ols ovk e^api^ovO" ol \eyovrcs ovb* ecplkovv avrovs 
cbcTTrtp vfids ovtol vvv, those men, then, whom the orators did not try to 



§ 158.] ACCUSATIVE. 129 

gratify, and whom they did not love as these now love you (lit. nor did 
they love them as, &c). Dem. Here avrovs is used to avoid repeating 
the relative in a new case, ovs. 

Note. Sometimes, however, a new case of the relative is under- 
stood in the latter part of a sentence ; as y ApLaios di, bv 17/xeiy rjOeXofiev 
ftacrikea Kadiardvai, Ka\ edwicafiev Kai cXafiofxev tuqtgl, and Ariaeus, whom 
we wished to make king, and (to whom) we gave and (from whom) we 
received pledges, &c. Xen. 

THE CASES. 

Eemark. The Greek is descended from a language which had eight 
cases, — an ablative, a locative, and an instrumental, besides the five 
found in Greek. 

I. NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE. 

§ 157. 1. The nominative is chiefly used as the subject 
of a finite verb (§ 134, 1), or in the predicate after verbs 
signifying to be, &c. (§ 136). 

2. The vocative, with or without <S, is used in address- 
ing a person or thing ; as a> avhpes 'ABrjvcuoi, men of 
Athens ! — aicoveis, Aiaylvr); dost thou hear, Aeschines? 

Note. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations, and 
even in other expressions, where the vocative is more common ; as 
a>fxot, eyo> deiKos, wretched me ! So fj Tlpown eKftawe, Procne, come 
out! 

II. ACCUSATIVE. 
Object Accusative. 

§ 158. The direct object of a transitive verb is put in 
the accusative; as rovro crco^ei ?y/xa? 5 this preserves us; 
ravra irocovfievy toe do these things. 

Note 1. Many verbs which are simply transitive in English, and 
govern the objective case, take either a genitive or a dative in Greek. 
(See § 171, § 184, 2, and § 188, 1, N. 2.) 

Note 2. Many verbs which are transitive in Greek are intransi- 
tive in English ', as o/zoO/xat rovs feovs, I will swear by the Gods ; iravras 
<i \a6eu, he escaped the notice of all. 



130 SYNTAX. [§ 159. 

Note 3. Verbal adjectives and even verbal nouns occasionally 
take an object accusative instead of the regular objective genitive 
(§ 167, 3, § 180); as ima-T^poves rjo-av ra 7r pocrr) Kovra, they were 
acquainted with what was proper. Xen. So ra pereco pa qypovTiorrjs, 
one who ponders on the things above (like (frpovTifav). Plat. 

Cognate Accusative. 

§ 159. Any verb whose meaning permits it may take 
an accusative of kindred signification. This accusative 
repeats the idea already contained in the verb, and may 
follow intransitive as well as transitive verbs. E. g. 

"Hdo/xai ras /xeyt'ora? tj d o v a s , / enjoy the greatest pleasures. Evrv- 
Xovctl tovto to 6 v t v xn //. a, they enjoy this good fortune. So Tr'mTeiv 
nianpa^ to fall a fall , vocrov voo-elv or voaov acrOeveiv or voaov Kapvtw, to 
suffer under a disease ; apdpTnpa apaprdveiv, to commit an error (to sin 
a sin)] hovkeiav SouXeveti/, to be subject to slavery ; dycova dycDvlfco-Gai, 
to undergo a contest ; ypa<prjv ypdfacrOcu, to bring an indictment ; ypcxprju* 
dtwKeiv, to prosecute an indictment : viicnv vikclv, to gain a victory ; pd^nv 
vikclv, to gain a victory; TropTrrjv Tripireiv, to form or conduct a procession ; 
7r\rjyr}v tv7tt€lv, to strike a blow. 

It will be seen that this construction is much more extensive in 
Greek than in English. The cognate accusative generally has an 
adjective or other qualifying word, as in the first two examples. 

Note 1. The cognate accusative may follow adjectives or even 
nouns; as kcikos rrdcrav icaiciav, bad with all badness; dyaOos ndcrav 
dpcTrjv, good with all goodness. 

Note 2. A neuter adjective sometimes represents a cognate acciu 
sative, its noun being implied in the verb ; as /z e y d X a apaprdveiv 
(sc. apapTrjpara), to commit great faults , ravrd Xvirovpai Kai ravra 
Xaipo), I have the same griefs and the same joys. 

Note 3. Here belongs the accusative of effect, which may follow 
even intransitive verbs; as 7rpe0-/3evoucri rrjv elprjvrjv, they negotiate 
the peace (as ambassadors, irpivfcii). Compare the English breaking 
a hole, as opposed to breaking a stick. 

So after verbs of looking (in poetry) ; as "A p v SeSopKe'vai, to look 
war; rj /SovXrj e/3Xe\^e vairv , the Senate looked mustard. 

Note 4. A transitive verb may have a direct and a cognate accu- 
sative at the same time; as ypdfaaOai riva rr\v ypa<fifjv Tavrrjv, to 
bring this indictment against any one ; rjdiKrjo-apcv tovtov ovdev, we did 
this man no wrong. 

For the cognate accusative after passive verbs, see § 198. 



§ 162.] ACCUSATIVE. 131 

Accusative of Specification. — Adverbial Accusative* 

§ 160. 1. The accusative of specification may be joined 

with a verb, adjective, or even a whole sentence, to denote 

that in respect to which the expression is used ; as Tvcf)\o$ 

ra o/jufiara, blind in his eyes ; /cdfivco ttjv feecfxikrfv, I have a 

pain in my head ; tcako? to eZSo?, beautiful inform. 

This is sometimes called the accusative by synecdoche, or the limit- 
ing accusative. 

2. An accusative of this nature often has the force of an 
adverb. E. g. 

Tovtou top rponov, in this way, thus ; ttjv raxlcrrTjv (sc. 686v), in the 
quickest way ; ttjv dpxrjv, at first (with negative, not at all) ; tcXos, 
finally ; irpolKa, as a gift, gratis ; x<*P lv i f or the sake of; bUnv, in the 
manner of; to irpcorov, at first.; to Xonrov, for the rest ; raXXa, in other 
respects ; ovdev, in nothing, not at all ; tl ; in what, why ? t\, in any re- 
spect, at all ; Tavra, in respect to this } therefore. So tovto fiev . . . tovto 
fie (§148, K4). 

Accusative of Extent. 

§ 161. The accusative may denote extent of time or 
space. E. g. 

At o-TTovdcu iviavTbv eowrai, the truce is to he for a year ; cp-avtv 
Tpcis f) fie pas, he remained three days; d-rrix^ & V nXaraia t&v Brjftcov 
o~Tadiovs ifidop.f)KovTa, and Plataea is seventy stades distant from 
Thebes. 

Note. This accusative with an ordinal number denotes how long 
since; TpiTnv rjbn r\\Lipav i7rLdedrjpTjK€v,this is the third day that he 
has been in town. 

A peculiar idiom is found in expressions like ctos tovtl TpWov (this 
the third year), i. e. two years ago. 

Terminal Accusative (Poetic). 

§ 162. In poetry, the accusative may denote the place 
ivhither. E. g. 

Mvno-TTJ pas dcj>LK€To, she came to the suitors. Odyss. *&v£fin fxeyav 
ovpavov Ov\v p.T7ov T€. H. To koIXop " A p y o s Pas (pvyds, going 
as an exile to the hollow Argos. Soph. 



132 SYNTAX. [§ 163. 

Accusative after Ntj and Met. 

§ 163. The accusative follows the adverbs of swearing, 
vr\ and fid, by. 

An oath introduced by vrj is affirmative ; one introduced by 
pa is negative ; as i>rj tov Ala, yes, by Zeus ; fia tov A/a, no, by Zeus. 

Note. When /xa is preceded by vai, yes, the oath is affirmative ; as 
va\, pa A/a, yes, by Zeus. 

Ma is sometimes omitted when a negative precedes ; as ov, t6v$ 
"OXvp-irov, no, by this Olympus. 

Two Accusatives with one Verb. 

§ 164. Yerbs signifying to ash, to demand, to teach, to 
clothe or unclothe, to conceal, to deprive, and some others, 
take two accusatives, one of a person and the other of a 
thing. E. g. 

MeXXere tovs Beovs alrelv dyaOd, you are about to ash blessings of the 
Gods ; tovs 7raldas tt)v fiovcnKrjv dtddo-Kei, he teaches the boys music ; 
cKdvei e/x€ tt)v evBryra, he strips me of my dress ; p.r) p.e Kpv^rrjs tovto, do 
not conceal this from me : tt)v Bebv tovs aTe(j)dvovs crtcrvXrjKao-w, they 
have robbed the Goddess of her crowns. 

Note 1. Tipcopeofiai, to avenge, sometimes takes two accusatives, 
Tivd ti, instead of an accusative and a genitive. See the Lexicon. 

Note 2. Yerbs of depriving take also an accusative and a geni- 
tive. Thus d<paipela6aL Tivd ti, twos tl (sometimes Tivd twos). See 
the Lexicon. 

§ 165. Verbs signifying to do anything to a person, or 
to say anything of a person, take two accusatives. E. g. 

TavTL fM€ TToiovaiv, they do these things to me ; t\ [l elpydaoa ; what didst 
thou do to me? TavA crv ToXpas rjpds Xeyeiv ; dost thou dare to say these 
things of us? Ov (ppovriaTeov 6 ti epovaiv oi noXXol fjpds, we must not 
consider what the multitude will say of us. 

Note 1. These verbs often take ev or koXcds, well, or ica/ccos, ill, 
instead of the accusative of a thing ; tovtovs ev 7roi€t, he does them 
good ; vpds KaK&s notel, he does you harm; KaK&s fjpas Xeyei, he speaks 
ill of us. 

The passive form of these expressions is not ev (or kokcos) iroiei<r6ai, 
ev (or KawZs) XeyeaBai, to be done well by, to be spoken well of &c, but 
ev (or kqkcos) ndo-xecv, to experience good (or evil), and ev (or kokcds) 
aKoveiv, bene (male) audire, to hear ones self called. 



§ 167.] GENITIVE. 133 

Note 2. Updo-ao, to do, very seldom takes two accusatives in this 
construction, ttoUco being generally used. Ev and kcikcos 7rpdo-(rco are 
intransitive, meaning to be well off, to be badly off. 

Note 3. Verbs signifying to do may take the dative of a person; 
as dyaBov tl iroiovvi ttj ttoXcl, they do some good to the state. 

§ 166. Verbs signifying to name, to make, to appoint, to 
consider, and the like, take two accusatives, both denoting 
the same person or thing. E. g. 

Tt rr)v ttoKlv 7rpocrayopevus ; what do you call the state ? — so koXovo-l 
fie tovto to ovop.a, they call me by this name, ^TpaTnybv avrbv diribei^c, 
he appointed Mm general. 

Note 1. Verbs signifying to divide may take two accusatives on 
the same principle ; as to arpdrcvpa /careVet/xe dd>deKa fieprj, he divided 
the army into twelve parts (i. e. he made twelve parts of the army). 

Note 2. Many other transitive verbs may take a predicate accusa- 
tive to explain the object accusative; as e'Aa/3e tovto bapov, he took 
this as a gift ; Inrrovs aytw Bv /xara rw tjXico, to bring horses as offer- 
ings to the Sun. Especially an interrogative pronoun may be so used; 
as Tivas tovtovs 6pS ; who are these ivhom I see ? (§ 142, 3.) 

In the passive, when the object accusative becomes the subject 
nominative, the predicate accusative (of every kind) becomes a predi- 
cate nominative. See § 136 and § 137, N. 4. 

III. GENITIVE. 
Genitive after Nouns (Adnominal Genitive). 

§ 167. A noun in the genitive may depend on another 
noun, to express the relations denoted by the English of. 
The most important of these relations are the following : — 

1. Possession: as f] tov naTpos olicia, the father's house; 
fjpL&v f] naTpis, our country. So 37 tov Aids, the daughter of 
Zeus ; tcl t<ov Bt&v, the things of the Gods (§ 141, Note 4). 
The Possessive Genitive. 

2. The Subject of an action or feeling : as rj tov d r\p.o v evvoia, 
the good-will of the people (i. e. ivhich the people feel). The 
Subjective Genitive. 

3. The Object of an action or feeling : as did to Uavaaviov 
fiio-os, owing to the hatred of (i. e. felt against) Pausanias ; al tov 



134 SYNTAX. [§" 168. 

Xeifxcovos KapTeprjaeis, the endurance of the whiter. So tcov 6ecov 
opKoi, oaths (sworn) in the name of the Gods (as we say Beovs 
ofjLvvuat, § 158, N. 2). The Objective Genitive. 

4. Material, including that of which anything consists : as 
ftocov dyeXn, a herd of cattle ; akcros r^pipcov bevdpcov, a grove of 
cultivated trees; Kprjvn rjbeos vdaTos, a spring of fresh water ; dvo 
XoLvik€s dXcptTcov, two quarts of meal. Genitive of Material. 

5. Measure, of space, time, or value : as Tpicov fjpepcov 6d6s, 
a journey of three days ; oktco err ad lav ret^os, a tvall of eight 
stades {in length)) TpiaKovra TaXdvTcov ovaia, an estate of thirty 
talents, dl/cai ttoXXcov TaXdvTcov, lawsuits of (i. e. involving) many 
talents. Genitive of Measure. 

6. The Whole, after nouns denoting a part : as noXXol rim 
prjropcov, many of the orators; dvrjp tcov iXevOepcov, a man 
(i. e. one) of the freemen. The Partitive Genitive. (See also 
§ 168.) 

The genitive depending on a noun is called adnominal. 

Note. Examples like 'kQvvcov noXis, the city of Athens, Tpolrjs 
7TToXU0pov, the city of Troy, in which the genitive is used instead of 
apposition, are poetic. 

§ 168. The partitive genitive (§167, 6) may follow all 
nouns, adjectives (especially superlatives), participles with 
the article, pronouns, and adverbs, which denote a part. 
E. g. 

Ot dyaQoi tcov dvB pcoircov, the good among the men: 6 rjptavs rov 
d p i 6 fMov, the half of the number: avbpa olda rod drjpov, I know a 
man of the people: tchs Opavirats tcov vclvtcov, to the upper benches 
of the sailors; ovdels tcov tt a i b co v , no one of the children; rravrcov 
tcov pr)To pcov dcivoTciTos, the most eloquent of all the orators ; 6 fiovXo- 
pevos tcov 'kOnvalcov, any one icho pleases of the Athenians; dia 
yvvaiKcov, divine among women (Horn.); ttov ttjs yrjs; ubi terra- 
rum ? where on the earth ? tls tcov no X t r co v ; iclio of the citizens ? 8ls 
ttjs Tjpepas-, twice a day; ei? tovto dvolas, to this pitch of folly ; 
cv tovtco napacr K€vrj s, in this state of preparation ; a pev 8icok€l tov 
yjfT] <fi icr paTo s tout ccttiv, these are the parts of the decree which he 
prosecutes (lit. what parts of the decree he prosecutes, &c). So 6p66- 
Tara dv6 p co iv co v Xeyeis, thou speakest as the most correct of men {most 
correctly of men) ; 5t€ 8€lv6tcltos ctcivtov ravTa rjcrOa, when you were 
at the height of your power in these matters. 



§ 169.] GENITIVE. 135 

Note 1. An adjective or participle generally agrees in gender 

with a following partitive genitive. But sometimes, especially when 

, it is singular, it is neuter, agreeing with jiepos, part, understood ; as 

TG>v 7roAe/iiW to 7ro\v (for ol ttoWoi), the greater part of the enemy ; 

em 7ro\v ttjs x^P as } over muc h of the country. 

Note 2. A partitive genitive sometimes depends on t\s or pipos 
understood; as €(f)aaav eT:i\iiyvvvai a<pcov re 7rpos eiceivovs teal eKelvcov 
7rpos iavrovs, they said that some of their own men had mixed with them, 
and some of them with their own men (two's being understood with 
<r<£a>i/ and ckcIvcop). See also § 169, 2 ; § 170, 2. 

Note 3. Similar to such phrases as irov yfjs ; els tovto dvolas, &c. 
is the use of e^co and an adverb with the genitive; as ncos e'xeis 
do£rjs; in what state of opinion are you? ovtco rponov e'xeis, this is 
your character (lit. in this state of character) ; cos ef^e rdxovs, as 
fast as he could (lit. in the condition of speed in which he was) ; so cos 
€ixe no da v. 

Genitive after Verbs. 

§ 169. 1. Verbs signifying to be, to become, to belong, 
and the like, take a genitive which is equivalent to the 
possessive or the partitive genitive. E. g. 

'O vofios ovros ApaKovros euTiv, this law is Draco's, Tievlav 
<f)€p€iv ov n avros, aAX' dpd pos o-o<pov, to bear poverty is not the 
part of every one, but that of a ivise man. Aape iov ylyvovrai hvo 
naihes, two sons are born (belonging) to Darius. Tovrcov yevov 
fjioi, become (one) of these for me. 

2. Verbs signifying to name, to make, to appoint, to con- 
sider, and the like, which generally take two accusatives 
(§ 166), may take a partitive genitive in place of the 
second accusative. The genitive really depends on an 
accusative like tlvcl, eva, or puepos, understood. E. g. 

'E/xe 6es tcov TreTre lo- fjLevoju, put me down as (one) of those who are 
persuaded. Tovto ttjs rjfieTepas afxeXeias av tls Belt) biKaim, any one 
might justly consider this to belong to our neglect 

Note. When these verbs become passive, they still retain the 
genitive; as 26\cov tcov inTa cr o<p icttSv ckXtjOt], Solon was called 
(one) of the Seven Sages. 

3. The genitive after verbs sometimes expresses other rela- 
tions of the adnominal genitive. E. g. 



136 SYNTAX. [§ 170. 

To relxos a-rad lav rjv oktq), the wall ivas (one) of eight stades (in 
length) ; iireidav ercov fj tis TpiaKovra, when one is thirty years old; — 
Genitive of Measure. 02 arefpapot p 6d cov fjcrav, the crowns were 
(made) of roses ; to Telxos TttTroinrai X l$ov, the wall is built of stone ; 
— Grenitive of Material. Ov tSv kclkov pya> v oIktos (sc. cotiV), 
there is no pity for the evil doers; — Objective G-enitive. 

§ 170. 1. Any verb may take a genitive if its action 
affects the object only in part E. g. 

n€jjL7T€i tg>v AuSwi/, he sends some of the Lydians (but ir£\mei tovs 
Avdovs, he sends the Lydians). Hlvei tov o'ivov, he drinks of the 
wine. Tt}? yrjs erefiov, they ravaged (some) of the land. 

2. This principle applies especially to verbs signifying 
to share (i. e. to give or take a part), to claim, to enjoy. E. g. 

MctcIxov rrjs X e 1 a s , they shared in the booty ; ttjs avveo-ecos 
fieTcnroiovvTciL, they lay claim to (a share of) sagacity ; anokavoyLzv t&v 
dyaB&v, ice enjoy the blessings (i. e. our share of them) ; ovtcos ovaio 
tovtcov, thus mayst thou enjoy these. So ov 7Tpoo~f)KeL p.01 ttjs apxv 9 > 
/ have no concern in the government (§ 184, 2, N. 1). 

Note. Many of these verbs also take an accusative. Merex<o and 
similar verbs regularly take an accusative like p.£pos,part; as to- ov 
ftere^et e/caoroy tov ttKovtov fie pos , each has an equal share of the 
wealth (where pepovs would mean that each has only a part of a 
share). This use of pepos shows the nature of the genitive after 
these verbs. 

§ 171. 1. The genitive follows verbs signifying to take 
hold of, to touch, to claim, to aim at, to hit, to attain, to miss, 
to make trial of, to begirt. E. g. 

'EXa/Sero ttjs x €L P 0S a vTov, he took his hand; oure irvpbs ovtc 
cpcoTos iiccov aTrTOfiai, I willingly touch neither fire nor love; ttjs 
£jvv€0~€<ds /jL€TanoLovvTai, they lay claim to sagacity ; oro;^a£Vo"#at tg>v 
av6 pa)7r cov, to aim at the men; ttjs dpeTrjs £<fiiic€0-6ai, to attain to 
virtue ; erv^e ttjs § I k tj s, he met with justice ; TrcipaarBai tov t c Ixovs, 
to make an attempt on the wall; ov noXefiov apxofi.ev, we do not begin 
tear. 

Note. Yerbs of taking hold may have an object accusative, with a 
genitive of the part taken hold of. 

2. The genitive follows verbs signifying to taste, to smell, 



§ 171.] GENITIVE. 137 

to hear, to perceive, to understand, to remember, to forget, to 
desire, to care for, to spare, to neglect, to admire, to despise. 
E. g. 

y E\€v@€ p Irjs yevcrdpevoi, having tasted of freedom (Hdt.) ; (fxovrjs 
aKovecv, to hear a voice; alcrOdveoOai, pepi/rjo-Qai, or iirikavOavevOai 
tovtcov, to perceive, remember, or forget these things ; crvviivai dWrj- 
Xcov, to understand one another; tcov paOn jjlclt cov imOvpco, / long 
for learning ; xprj par cov (fieidccrOcu, to be sparing of money ; bo^ns 
dpekeiv, to neglect opinion; ayapai rrjs dpcTrjs, I admire virtue; 
KaTcufipovclv tov Kivbvvov, to despise danger (§ 173, 2, Note). 

Note .1. Verbs of hearing and the like may take an accusative of 
the thing heard, and a genitive of the person heard from; as tovtcov 
toiovtovs dicovco Xoyovs, I hear such sayings from these men ; 7rvdecr6cu 
tovto vpcov, to learn this from you. The genitive here belongs under 
§ 176, 1. A sentence may take the place of the accusative; as tovtcov 
aicove tl Xeyovcnv, hear from these what they say. See also dnoDexopcu, 
to accept (a statement) from, in the Lexicon. 

Note 2. The impersonals fxcXet and /zera/xe'Xei take the geni- 
tive of a thing with the dative of a person (§ 184, 2, N. 1) ; as /ze'X« 
pot tovtoV) I care for this; peTapfkei o~ol tovtov, thou repentest of this. 
npoarjKei, it concerns, has the same construction, but the genitive 
belongs under § 170, 2. 

Note 3. Causative verbs of this class take the accusative of a 
person and the genitive of a thing; as prj p dvapvfjans kcikcov, do 
not remind me of evils (i. e. cause me to remember them) ; tovs naldas 
yevcrTeov cupaTos, we must make the children taste blood. 

Remark. Most of the verbs included in § 171, 1 and 2, also take 
the accusative. See the different verbs in the Lexicon. 

3. The genitive follows verbs signifying to ride or to 
command. E. g. 

"Epos? tcov 0€cov fia(Ti\€i)€i, Love is king of the Gods. HoXvKpaTns 
2dpov €Tvpdvv€i, Polycrates was tyrant of Samos. 'OttXitcov kcu 
Ittttccov ecrTpaTTjyei, he was general of infantry and cavalry; ^ydrcu 
navTos /cat epyov kol \6yov, he directs everything, both deed and 
word. 

This construction is sometimes connected with that of § 174, 2. 
But the genitive seems rather to depend on the idea of king or ruler 
implied in the verb. 



138 SYNTAX. [§ 172. 

Note. For other cases after many of these verbs, as the dative 
after rjyeopai and dvdcro-co, see the Lexicon. 

§ 172. 1. Verbs signifying fulness and want take the 
genitive. E. g. 

X p7] fidrcov evnopel, he has abundance of money ; ol rupavvoi iirai- 
vov oviTore oiravi^Te, you tyrants never have a scarcity of praise. 

2. Verbs signifying to fill take the accusative and the 
genitive. E. g. 

*Y bar o$ ttjv kvXiko. irXnpovv, to fill the cup with water. 

Note 1. Acofiai, I icant, besides the ordinary construction (as 
tovtcov edeovro, they were in want of these), may take a genitive of the 
person with a cognate accusative of the thing; as derjo-ofiai ifxav 
fjL€Tpiap bencriv, I will make of you a moderate request. 

ISTote 2. Act may take a dative (sometimes in poetry an accusa- 
tive) of the person besides the genitive ; as del p, o i tovtov, I need 
this ; ov noXXov ttovov p. e del, / have no need of much labor. 

Besides the common phrases ttoXXou b el, it is far from it, 
oX/yov Sel, it icants little of it, we have in Demosthenes ovbk 
iroXXov del (like kcivtos del), it wants everything of it (lit. it does not 
even want much). For oXiyov and p,iKpov almost, see the Lexicon. 

Causal Genitive. 

§ 173. 1. The genitive often denotes a cause, especially 
after verbs expressing praise or dispraise, pity, anger, envy, 



or revenge. 



E. 



Tovtovs TTj9 To\p,rj9 6avp.d£eiv, to admire these for their courage ; 
evdaipovifa <re rov rponov, I congratulate you on your character; 
tovtovs oiKTeipco tj]s v 6 o~ o v , I pity these on account of their sickness; 
rcbu ddiKT)p.aT(Dv 6pyL{eo-0ai avrols, to be angry with them for their 
offences; fyXovvTes rrjv ttoXlv ttjs MapaOcoui p.d\ns, envying the city 
for the battle at Marathon ; tovtov vol ov (pOovrjaco, I shall not grudge 
you this; tovtovs t?/s apirayrfs TipcoprjcracrOai, to take vengeance on 
these for the robbery. 

It will be seen that most of these verbs are also transitive, and 
take an object accusative with the genitive. 

Note. Verbs of disputing take a causal genitive ; as dvrnroielcrOai 
to) ftaariXci ttjs dpxrjs, to dispute with the king about his dominion; 
EvpoXnos T)(JL(j)icrftr)Trio-€v 'Epex&el ttjs noXecos, Eumolpus disputed 
with Erechtheus about the city (i. e. disputed its possession with him). 



§ 174.] GENITIVE. 139 

2. Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to 
acquit, and to condemn take a causal genitive denoting the 
crime. E. g. 

Alnapai avrov rov <f>6vov 9 I accuse him of the murder ; eypdyj/aro 
avrov rrapavo /xo)i/, he indicted him for an illegal proposition ; Sia)/cet 
/Lie Sa>pa>v, he prosecutes me for bribery (for gifts) ; Kkecova ddtpav 
iXovres Ka\ K\o7rrjs, having convicted Cleon of bribery and theft; 
€<p€vy€ 7rpodoo-las, he ivas brought to trial for treachery, but airefyvyc 
Trpodoarlas, he teas acquitted of treachery; noWcov ol iraripes rjpcov 
[India- p.ov Bdvarov Kareyvooaav, our fathers condemned many to death 
for favoring the Persians (for ttoWcdv and Bdvarov see Note). 

Note. Compounds of Kara of this class commonly take a genitive 
of the person, which depends on the Kara. They may also take an 
object accusative denoting the crime or punishment. E. g. 

Ovbcis avros avrov Karnyoprjae rroyirorc, no man ever himself accused 
himself; Karayjsevdovral fxov peydXa, they tell great falsehoods against 
me; $o//3ou dSiKiav Karrjyopelv, to charge injustice upon Phoebus; 
ivia>v €7T€i(rav vpas aKptrcov Bdvarov Kara\j/n(pLO'aoBaL, they per- 
suaded you to pass (sentence of) death upon many without a trial. 

Verbs of condemning may take three cases, as in the last example 
under § 173, 2. 

3. The causal genitive is sometimes used in exclama- 
tions. E. g. 

9 Q Iloo-etSoi/, rov pditpovs! Poseidon, what a height! 9 £1 ZeO 
/SacrtXeO, ri)s XeTTrornros rwv (ppevcov ! King Zeus ! what subtlety 
of mind ! 

Genitive as Ablative. 

§ 174. The genitive may denote that from which any- 
thing is separated or distinguished. 

On this principle the genitive follows verbs denoting to 
remove, to restrain, to release, to abandon, to deprive, and the 
like. E. g. 

H vrjaos ov 7ro\v Ste^ft rrjs -qireipov, the island is not far distant 
from the mainland ; eTnorrjprj x^p^opevn dpcrfjs, knowledge separated 
from virtue ; \vo-6v pe dc o~ pcSv, release me from chains ; irreaxov rrjs 
T€ ^Xl (T€a) s, they ceased from building the icall ; 7t6o~<dv dneo-re- 
prjaBe ; of hoiu much have you been deprived? ciravaav avrov rrj? 
ar parrjy las, they deposed him from his command; ov rravecrBe rrjs 
jjLoxBnp las, you do not cease from your rascality. So elnov (avrco) 



140 SYNTAX. [§ 175. 

tov kt) pv kos firj Xe'nrecrBai, they told him not to be left behind the herald 
(i. e. to follow close upon him) ; f) eVto-roX^, rjv ovtos eypnyjrev a7roXet- 
(fiOiis f]fxcbv, the letter which this man wrote without our knowledge (lit. 
separated from us). 

For the accusative after verbs of depriving, see § 164. 

§ 175. 1. The comparative degree takes the genitive 

when rj y than, is omitted. E. g. 

KpeiTTGov io~Ti tovtcov, he is better than those. Neoir to cnydv 
KpiiTTov inn. tov \a\elv, for youth silence is better than prating. 
Uovqpia Bolttov Bavdrov rpe^h wickedness runs faster than death. 

Note 1. All adjectives and adverbs which imply a comparison 
may take a genitive ; as erepoi tovtcov, others than these ; va-repoi ttjs 
pdxqs, too late for {later than) the battle ; rfj vcrrepaia ttjs pax*]?* on ^ e 
day after the battle. So Tpnrkao-iov rjficov, thrice as much as we. 

Note 2. After rrkeov {rfkeiv), more, or eXaacrov, less, fj is occasion- 
ally omitted without affecting the case; as ire^co opvts eV avTov, 
nXelv i £aKoo~ lov s tov dpiBfiov, I will send birds against him, more 
than six hundred in number. Arist. 

2. The genitive follows verbs signifying to surpass, to be 
inferior, and all others which imply comparison. E. g. 

AvBpco7ros £vv€o~€i v7T€pi^€L tcov aXXcov, man surpasses the others in 
sagacity; tov 7rXr)Bovs TrepiyiyvtoBai, to be superior to the multitude ; 
vorepifciv tcov Kaipcov, to be too late for the opportunities. So tcov i^Bpcov 
vucacrBai (or fjcrarao~Bcu), to be overcome by one's enemies ; but these two 
verbs take also the genitive with V7r6, and the dative. So KpaTeiv tcov 
exBpcov, to prevail over one's enemies, and ttjs BaXdcrans KpaTtiv, to be 
master of the sea; which belong equally well under § 171, 3. 

§ 176. 1. The genitive sometimes denotes the source. E. g. 
Tovto €tv\6v crov, I obtained this from you; tovto ZfiaBcv v ficbv, he 
learned this from you. Add the examples under § 171, 2, N. 1. 

2. In poetry, the genitive occasionally denotes the agent after 
passive verbs, or is used like the instrumental dative (§ 188). 
E. g. 

'Ev^AiSa br) Kticrai, eras dXoxov crcfiaycls KlyicrBov re, thou liest 
now in Hades, slain by thy wife and Aegisthus. Eur. 

IIpTjcrai nvpos drjtoio BvpeTpa, to burn the gates with destructive 
fire. II. 

These constructions would not be allowed in prose. 



§ 179.J GENITIVE. 141 

Genitive after Compound Verbs. 

. § 177. The genitive often depends on a preposition 
included in a compound verb. E. g. 

UpoKciTdL ttjs ' A t t t k t) s opn peydXa, high mountains lie before Attica ; 
tuu vfierepcov d i k a l (o v 7rpoto-raa6ai, to stand in defence of your lights ; 
vnepeqbdvncrav tov \6<fiov, they appeared above the hillj ovtcos v/jlcdv 
vnepaXyo), I grieve so for you ; iiri^avrcs rod t e i %ov s, having mounted 
the iv all ; aTroTpenei pe tovtov, it turns me from this. 

For the genitive after certain compounds of Kara, see § 173, 2, N. 
See also § 193. 

Genitive of Price or Value. 

§ 178. The genitive denotes the price or value of a 
thing. E. g. 

Ao£a xpVf JL ^ T(0V 0VK ^r)TT) (sc. eWiV), glory is not to be bought with 
money; irocrov diddvKti; for what price does he teach? piaSov 
vofiovs cla(j)ep€i, he proposes laws for a bribe ; 6 dovXos Trivre pvcav tl- 
liaTai, the slave is valued at five minas. So ripdrai 5' ovv pot 6 dvrjp 
Bavdrov , so the man estimates my punishment at death (i. e. proposes 
death as my punishment). Plat. So also 2(podpiav vnrjyov Bavdrov, 
they impeached Sphodrias on a capital charge. 

Note. The genitive may depend on agios, worth, worthy, and its 
compounds, or on dgioco, to think worthy ; as agios icrri Bavdrov, he is 
worthy of death ; QepiaroKkea ra>v peyicrrcov r]£icDO~av, they thought 
Themistocles worthy of the highest honors. So sometimes anpos and 

Genitive of Time and Place. 

§ 179. 1. The genitive may denote the time vjithin 
which anything takes place. E. g. 

. Uepo-ai ot x rjgovai defect er&v, the Persians will not come within 
ten years. Trjs vvicros iyevcro, it happened within the night (but rrjv 
vvKra means during the wlxole night). So dpaxprjv iXdpfiave njs rjpepas, 
he received a drachma a day. 

2. A similar genitive of the place within which is found in 
poetry. E. g. 

*H ovk *A p y e o s rjcv 'A^an/toO; teas he not in Achaean Argosf 
Odyss. So in the Homeric irebioio BUiv, to run on the plain (i. e. 
within its limits), and similar expressions. So dpia-reprjs x €l P° s > on ^ e 
left hand, even in Hdt. 



142 SYNTAX. [§ 180. 

Genitive with Adjectives. 

§ 180. The objective genitive follows many verbal ad- 
jectives. 

1. These adjectives are chiefly kindred (in meaning or 
derivation) to verbs which take the genitive. E. g. 

Me'rovo? crocfrias, partaking of wisdom (§ 170, 2). 'Enrj^oXos emo-TT}- 
fins, having attained to knowledge ; epneipos kcikcqv, experienced in evils ; 
tov apioTov o-ToxacTTiKos, aiming at the best (§ 171, 1). KarrjKoos tcqv 
yovecov, obedient (lit. hearkening) to his parents ; iirio-T-qpcov tcov diKaicov, 
understanding his rights ; €7tiu.€\t)s dyaBcov, dpeXrjs kcikcov, caring for the 
good, neglectful of the bad ; <p€idco\o\ xm^tcdv, sparing of money 
(§ 171, 2). y EyKpaTT)s iavTov, being master of himself; dpx^os dvbpcov, 
fit to rule men (§ 171, 3). Mecrros kcikcov, full of evils ; e'pnpoi avp-pA- 
vtoi/, destitute of allies ; rj ^vx?) yvpvr) tov crcopaTos, the soul stript of the 
body ; KaBapos obovov, free from the stain of murder (§ 172, 1). "Ez/oyos 
deiXias, chargeable with cowardice (§ 173, 2). Aidcfiopos tcov aXkcov, 
distinguished from the others (§ 174). 

2. Some are kindred to verbs which take the accusa- 
tive. E. g. 

IloXeo)? dvaTpcrrriKos, subversive of the state; irpaKTiKos tcov koKcov, 
capable of doing noble deeds ; cpikopadrjs Trdcrns dXrjBelas, fond of learn- 
ing all truth, 

Note 1. Especially, adjectives compounded with alpha privative 
(§ 132, 1) take the genitive; as ciyev cttos kcikcov, without a taste of 
evils; d /a v r\ p co v tcov kivDvvcov, forgetful of the dangers; diraOrjs 
kcikcov, without suffering ills ; da par t) s ykcocrcrns, without power over 
his tongue. 

Sometimes these adjectives take a genitive of kindred meaning, 
which depends on the idea of separation implied in them; as anais 
dppevcov naidcov, childless (in respect) of male children ; aTipos irdcr-qs 
Tiprjs, destitute of all honor ; ddcoporaTos v^^ara)!/, most f ree from 
taking bribes. 

For the genitive of price after agios, see § 178, Note. 

§ 181. The possessive genitive sometimes follows adjec- 
tives denoting possession or the opposite. E. g. 

OIkcIo. tcov ftaoikevovTcov, belonging to the kings; Upos 6 Ywpo? ttjs 
'Apre/xtSo?, the place is sacred to Artemis ; koivov airavTcov, common to 
all ; dnpoKpciTias dWoTpia, things foreign to democracy. 

For the dative after such adjectives, which is more common than 
the genitive, see § 185. 



§ 183.] GENITIVE. 143 

ISTote. Some adjectives of place, like ivavrios, opposite, may take 
the genitive instead of the regular dative (§ 185), but chiefly in 
poetry ; as Ivavrioi carau 'A x a fc <5 v •> they stood opposite the Achaeans. 

Genitive with. Adverbs* 

§ 182. 1. The genitive follows adverbs derived from 
adjectives which take the genitive. E. g. 

Oi e ftTre [pa s avrov c'xovtcs, those who are acquainted with him; 
dva£l(o s ttjs 7t6\€<os, in a manner unworthy of the state ; ipdxovTo 
d£j ico s Xoyov, they fought in a manner worthy of mention. 

2. The genitive follows many adverbs oi place. E. g. 

Ei'o-G) tov epvfiaro?, within the fortress ; c£co tov tclxovs, outside of 
the wall; cktos t€>v opav, without the boundaries; %<Qp\s tov croifia- 
tos, apart from the body; fxeraijv aoqbias Ka\ d/jLadlas, between wisdom 
and ignorance ; iri pav tov iroTapov, beyond the river , tt poaSev tov 
o-TparoTrebov, in front of the camp ; dp,<poT c pcoOev Ttjs odov, on both 
sides of the road ; evOv ttjs &ao-r)\idos, straight to Phaselis. 

Such adverbs, besides those given above, are chiefly £vtos, within ; 
8lxa, apart from; iyyvs, ayxi, 7reXa9, and ifkno-'iov, near; 7roppa> {TTpoaroa), 
far from; omadev and Karamv, behind; and a few others of similar 
meaning. The genitive after most of them can be explained as a 
partitive genitive or as a genitive of separation ; that after evBv resem- 
bles that after verbs of aiming at (§ 171, 1). 

Add pa and Kpixfia, without the knowledge of sometimes take the 
genitive. 

Note. TlXrjv, except, axpi and /xe^pt, until, avev and arep, 
without, eveKa (ovveica), on account of, take the genitive like prepo- 
sitions. For these and ordinary prepositions with the genitive, see 
§ 191, 1. 

Genitive Absolute. 

§ 183. A noun and a participle not connected with the 
main .construction of the sentence often stand by them- 
selves in the genitive. This is called the genitive absolute. 
Eg. ^ 

TavT iirpdxBn Kovcovos o-TpaTnyovvros, this was done when 
Conon was general. Aiaf3e (3r) koto s fjdrj UepiKXeovs, rjyyeXQn 
avT(o oti, &c, when Pericles had already crossed over, news was brought 
to him that, &c. 

For the relations denoted by the genitive absolute, and for pecu- 
liarities in its use, see § 278. 



144 SYNTAX. [§ 184. 

IV. DATIVE. 

Remark. The primary use of the dative case is to denote that to 
or for which anything is or is done. It also denotes that by which or 
with which, and the time (sometimes the place) in which, anything 
takes place, — i. e. it is not merely a dative, but also an instrumental 
and a locative case. (See Remark before § 157.) The object of mo- 
tion after to is not regularly expressed by the Greek dative, but by 
the accusative with a preposition. (See § 162.) 

Dative expressing To or For, 

§ 184. The dative is used to denote that to or /or which 
anything is or is done. This includes 

1. The dative of the indirect object after transitive verbs, 
which is generally introduced in English by to. E. g. 

Aiftacn ptcrSov t<5 <tt parev pari, he gives pay to the army; vm- 
cxyeirai or oi deKa rdXavra, he promises ten talents to you (or he promises 
you ten talents) ; fiorfieiav Trepyj/opev rois o~v ppaxo i s, we will send 
aid to our allies ; eXeyov tcq /3acrt AeT ra yeyevqpeva, they told the king 
what had happened. 

2. The dative after certain intransitive verbs, many of 
which in English take a direct object without to. E. g. 

"Ev^ofiac rois Beols, I pray (to) the Gods: diKaioo-vvn Xvo-iTeXel tco 
%Xovti, justice is advantageous to (or profits) the one having it; rois 
vofjLois 7r€L0€Tai, he is obedient to the laws (he obeys the laws); fionOei 
rois (plXoLs, he assists his friends; dpeo~Kei ro7s noXiT a is, it is 
pleasing to (or it pleases) the citizens; clkc dvdyKrj, yield to neces- 
sity; ov 7norT€V€L rois <p IX o l s , he does not trust his friends ; rois 
Qrj (3aiois 6v€l&i£ov<tlv, they reproach the Thebans ; tl iyicaXels tj^lIv; 
what have you to blame us for? lirnptd^ovcriv dXXrjXo is, they revile 
one another; opyi^aOt rois db ikovo-iv, you are angry with the of 
fenders. So Trpiirei jjlol Xeyeiv, it is becoming me to speak ; 7rpoar)K€i 
P-ol, it belongs to me ; doKel pi, it seems to me; Sokco jjloi, meihinks. 

The verbs of this class which are not translated with to in 
English are chiefly those signifying to benefit, serve, obey, defend, 
assist, please, trust, satisfy, advise, exhort, or any of their oppo- 
sites ; also those expressing friendliness, hostility, abuse, rept^oach, 
envy, anger, or threats. 

Note 1. The impersonals Set, fiereo-Ti, /xeXet, and 7rpoo-T)icei 
take the dative of a person with the genitive of a thing ; as del /zoi 



§ 184.] DATIVE. 145 

tovtov, I have need of this ; \i£tz<jti \ioi tovtov, I have a share in this; 
fieXei pot tovtov, I am interested in this ; Trpoorjicei poi toutov, I am con- 
cerned in this. (For the genitive, see § 170, 2, § 172, JNote 2.) 

Ael and xph ta ^e the accusative (very rarely the dative) when an 
infinitive follows. For del (in poetry) with the accusative and the 
genitive, see § 172, Note 2. 

Note 2. Some verbs of this class may take an object accusative. 
Others (as pucreco, to hate) take only the accusative. KeXevco, to com- 
mand, has only the accusative with the infinitive. Aoidopeo, to revile, 
in the active takes the accusative, and in the middle (XoiSopeo/xai) the 
dative. 

3. The dative of advantage or disadvantage, which is 
generally introduced in English by for. E. g. 

lias dvqp avTop novel, every man labors for himself; 26\cou 'AQtj- 
vaiois vopovs eflvKe, Solon made laws for the Athenians: ol Kaipol 
irpoelvTai ttj it 6 X e i , the opportunities have been sacrificed for the state 
(/or its disadvantage)] e\7ri$a e'xet crooTrjpias tj} ttoXci, he has hope 
of safety for the state. 

Note 1. A peculiar use of this dative is found in statements of 
time: as rw fjdrj bvo yeveai e^BiaTo, two generations had already passed 
away for him (i. e. he had seen them pass away). Horn. K Hpepai r)o~av 
rrj MvtlXtjvjj iaXcoKvla €7rra, for Mitylene captured (i. e. since its 
capture) there had been seven days. 'Hpepa .rjv tt^tttt] eTrnrkeovo-i toIs 
'AOnvaiois, it was the fifth day for the Athenians sailing on (i. e. it 
was the fifth day of their voyage). 

Note 2. Here belong such Homeric expressions as toIo-lv dveo-Tr], 
Tie rose up for them (i. e. to address them) ; toIctl p.v6cou r}px €J/ > ne began 
to speak before them. 

Note 3. In Homer, verbs signifying to ward off take an accusa- 
tive of the thing and a dative of the person ; as Aavaolo- 1 \oiy6v 
a/jLvvov, ward off destruction from the Danai (lit. for the Danai). Here 
the accusative may be omitted, so that Aavaolai dfivveiv means to de- 
fend the Danai. For other constructions of dp.vv<o, see the Lexicon. 

tie xofiai, to receive, takes a dative by a similar idiom; as 6Y£aro 
ol crK.rjTTTpov, he took his sceptic from him (lit. for him). 

Note 4. Sometimes this dative has nearly the. same force as a 
possessive genitive; as ol Ittttol avTols dedevrai, their horses are tied 
(lit. the horses are tied for them) ; dia to ecntdpQai a i> r <5 to o-Tpdrev- 
fia, because his army has been scattered ; rjpx°v t°v vovtikov toIs 2vpa- 
Koo-iois, they commanded the navy for the Syracusans (i. e. the Syracu- 
sans y navy). - '..... 



146 SYNTAX. [§ 185. 

Note 5. Here belongs the so-called ethical dative, in which the 
personal pronouns have the force of for my sake, &c, and sometimes 
cannot easily be translated ; as ti o-oi \x.a6j]crop.ai ; what am I to learn 
for you ? ncos f) p.lv €%€is ; how are you {we wish to know) ? 

Note 6. The participles fiovXo pepos, f) do fxevos, it poo b e - 
XOfi€vos, ax^ofxevos, and a few others, may agree with a dative, 
the phrase being equivalent to the verb of the participle; as avrco 
fiovXo pevcp iariv, it is to him wishing it (i. e. he wishes it). 

4. The dative of possession, after el pi , y lyvo /j,a i , 
and similar verbs. E. g. 

IloXXot fioL (plXoi elalv, I have many friends ; irdvra croi ycvfjcrerai, 
all things icill belong to you: ecrriv av 6 pcoirco XoyLcrfios, man has rea- 
son; 'iTnrla povco rcov ddeXcpcov naldes iyevuvro, to Hippias alone of 
the brothers there were children born. 

5. The dative denoting that with respect to which a 
statement is made, — often belonging to the whole sen- 
tence rather than to any special word. E. g. 

"Kiravra rco <fi o (Sov fie vcp ^o0€t, everything sounds to one who is 
afraid; crepcov fiev cvroXr) Ai6s e'xei reXos, as regards you two, the 
order of Zeus is fully obeyed. 

So in such expressions as these: iv be^ia itnrXeovri, on the 
right as you sail in (with respect to one sailing in); crvveXovrt, or 
cos crvveXovri dirfiv, concisely, or to speak concisely (lit. for one 
having made the matter concise). So cos ipo'i, in my opinion. 

§ 185. The dative follows many adjectives and adverbs 
of kindred meaning with the verbs included in § 184, and 
some verbal nouns. E. g. 

Av o~ fieurj s rots (fiiXois, hostile to his friends ; vttoxos rols vofiois, 
subject to the laws ; iTriKtvbvvov rfj noXei, dangerous to the state ; 
ftXafie pbv rco crccp-an, hurtful to the body ; cr o cp 6 s £ avrco, wise for 
himself; ivavrios avrco, opposed to him. (For the genitive alter 
evavrios, see § 181. Note.) So KarabovXcocrLs rcov 'EXXtjpcov reus 'A0n- 
vaiois, subjugation of the Greeks to the Athenians. 2 vpepe povrco s 
avrco, profitably to himself; i^irohcov ipol, in my way. 

Dative of Resemblance and Union. 

§ 186. The dative is used with all words implying 
resemblance, union, or approach. This includes verbs, ad- 
jectives, adverbs, and nouns. E. g. 



§ 188.] DATIVE. 147 

Stcials ioucoTes, like shadows; opCXovo-t to7s kclkoIs, iliey asso- 
ciate with the bad ; tovs favyovTas avrol s £vvr)XXa£;€v, he reconciled 
the exiles with them; opoXoyovviv dXXrjXois, they agree with one an- 
other ; SiaXeyovrai tovtols, they converse with these; tovs linrovs 
yjsocfrois ttXtjo-lol^iv, to bring the horses near to noises. "O/xoioi tois 
rvcfiXols, like the blind ; Kvpara lo~a 6 peer a- iv, waves like mountains 
(Horn.) ; rols avroU K v p a> onXois omXicrpevoi, armed with the same 
arms as Cyrus. 'Eyyvs 6 6a), near a road (also the genitive, § 182, 2) ; 
apa rfj rjpipa, as soon as (it was) day; 6pov tco TrrjXco, together 
with the mud ; tol tovtols e0e^y, what comes next to these. 

Note 1. To this class belong not merely such verbs as hiaXeyopai, 
to discourse with, but also pdxopai, 7roXe/iea), and others signi- 
fying to contend with, to quarrel with; as pdx^Bai toU GnftaioLs, 
to fight with the Thebans ; TroXepovaiv r)p7v, they are at war with us; 
ipi£ovo~iv dXXrjXois, they contend with each other; diacficpecrQai toIs 
Trovrjpois, to be at variance with the base. So is x € ~ L P as cXdclv tlvl, or 
is Xoyovs iXOelv tlvl, to come to a conflict (or words) with any one. 

Note 2. After adjectives of likeness f an abridged form of expres- 
sion may be used; as Kopai Xapireo-o-iv Spoiai, hair like (that of) 
the Graces (Horn.) ; ras 'iaas irXnyas i p. o i , the same number of blows 
with me. 

Dative after Compound Verbs. 

§ 187. The dative follows many verbs compounded 
with eV, <rvv, or hti\ and some compounded with 7rpo?, 
Trapa, irepi^ and viro. E. g. 

Tois vo p o ls ippivwv, abiding by the laws ; al rjftovai iincrT^pni/ 
ovdepiav tyvxfl ip-noiovo-iv, pleasures produce no knowledge in the soul ; 
iv€K€ivro rco TlepLKXel, they pressed hard on Pericles ; i pavT co 
avvrjdeiv ovdeu imo-Tapeva), I was conscious to myself that I knew, noth- 
ing (lit. with myself) ; ijhn irori cr o i €7rrjX6ev ; did it ever occur to you ? 
UpocrftdXXtiv tcd T€ixi(T[iaTi 9 to attack the fortification ; ddeXcfios 
avdpl Tvapeln, let a brother stand by a man (i. e. let a man's brother 
stand by him)] toIs k<ikoIs -nzpiTri-nTovcriv, they are involved in evils; 
v>roK€iTai to Ttehiov t<3 I e p &> , the plain lies below the temple. 

The dative here sometimes depends on the preposition (§ 193), and 
sometimes may be explained by the meaning of the compound verb. 

Causal and Instrumental Dative, 

§ 188. 1. The dative is used to denote the cause, man- 
ner, means, or instrument. E. g. 



148 SYNTAX. [§ 188. 

Cause : ' ) KiroBv^o-Kei vdcrco, he dies of disease ; 7roXXaKi9 dyvo la 
afiaprduofieuy we often err through ignorance. Manner: Apofico t)7T€l- 
yovro, they pressed forward on a run; iroXXfj Kpavyfj imaai, they 
advance with a loud shout; rjj dXndela, in truth; t&> ovtl, in reality; 
/3ia, forcibly ; ravrrj, in this manner, thus. Means or Instrument : 
c Opa>/zei> tols 6(j)0 aXjjLols, toe see with our eyes; iyvuxrQrja-av rfj 
(TKevrj t<ov onXcov, they were recognized by the fashion of their arms : 
KaKols IdcrOai naicd, to cure evils by evils; ovdels tiraivov rj d ovals 
iKTrjcraTo, no one gains praise by pleasures. 

Note 1. The dative of inspect is a form of the dative of manner ; 
as bvvarbs ra (ra/xart, strong in his body; woXis, Od\jraKos ovofxaTi, 
a city, Thapsacus by name. 

Note 2. - Xpdo fiai, to use (to serve one f s self by), takes the instru- 
mental dative ; as xP^ VTaL dpyvplco, they use money. A neuter 
pronoun (rl, rl, or 6 n) may be added as an adverbial accusative 
(§ 160, 2); as rl tovtols xpW°f JLaL > w ^ at s ^ a ^ I d° w ^ fl ^ iese ^ (lit. 
in what way shall I use these 1). "Noplfa has sometimes the same 
meaning and construction as ^pao/iat. 

2. The dative of manner is used with comparatives to 
denote the degree of difference. E. g. 

II X X a) Kpfirrov ioTLv, it is much better (better by much*) : rfj 
KecjyaXjj fieifav (or eXdrrcov), a head taller (or shorter) ; too-ovtco 
rjbiov £a>, I live so much the more happily ; re^vr) avdyicns dcrdevea-Tepa 
fMaKpS, art is weaker than necessity by far. 

So sometimes with superlatives, and even with other expressions 
which imply comparison; as fxaKpn KaXXio-rd re ko\ apiara, by far 
the most beautiful and the best; de/ca erecriv 77 pb rrjs iv ^aXapTtvi 
vavfiaxlas, ten years before the battle at Salamis. 

3. The dative sometimes denotes the agent with passive 
verbs, especially with the perfect and pluperfect. E. g. 

Tovto rjbrj o~ o 1 TreTrpaKrai, this has now been done by you ; itreStr} 
7rap€(TK€vaarTo toIs Ko pivQ lots, when preparation had been made by 
the Corinthians. 

With other tenses, the agent is regularly expressed by viro, &c. and 
the genitive (§ 197, 1) ; rarely by the dative, except in poetry. 

4. With the verbal adjective in -reo? the agent is ex- 
pressed by the dative, but sometimes by the accusative. 
See § 281. 



§ 190.] DATIVE. 149 

5. The dative is used to denote that by which any per- 
son or thing is accompanied. E. g. 

r H\Sov ol Ilepaai 7ra/x7rAr7#e7 o-roXa), the Persians came with an 
army in full force ; 77/ieis kcl\ in no is rols dwaTcordrois kol dvbpdai 
nopevcofxeOa, let us march with the strongest horses and with men; ol 
AaKedaipovioi tw re Kara yrjv err para npoaefiaWov tg> ret^iV/xart 
kol rais vavaiv, the Lacedaemonians attacked the wall both with their 
land army and with their ships. 

This dative is used chiefly in reference to military forces, and is 
originally connected with the dative of means or instrument. The last 
example might be placed equally well under § 188, 1. 

Note. This dative sometimes takes the dative of avros for empha- 
sis; as fji[av (yavii) avrols dvdpdaiv elkov, they took one (ship), 
men and all. 

Dative of Time, 

§ 189. The dative often denotes time when. This is 
confined chiefly to nouns denoting clay, night, month, or 
year, and to names of festivals. E. g. 

T17 avrff fjuepa dniBavev, he died on the same day ; 'TZpuai p.ia vvkt\ 
ol nXeloroi nepicKonrjaav, the most of the Hermae were mutilated in one 
night; ol 2dp.ioi i^eno\iopKrj6rjcrav ivdrco jinvi, the Samians were 
taken by siege in the ninth month; Terdpra erei $-vv€J3rjo~av, they 
came to terms in the fourth year ; cbanepel Beo-nocfropiois injo-rev- 
op.€v, we fast as if it were on the Thesmophoria. So rfj vo-repala 
(sc. 17/xepa), on the following day, and devrepa, Tplrrj, on the second, third, 
&c, } in giving the day of the month. 

Note. Even the words mentioned, except names of festivals, gen- 
erally take Iv when no adjective word is joined with them. Thus 
\v vvkt'i, at night (rarely in poetry vvktl), but uia wktl, in one night. 

A few expressions occur like varepep xp^ v< 9i * n a fi er ti me / x €L l l ^ iVOS 
&pa, in the spring season ; vovar^vla (new-moon day), on the first of the 
month; and others in poetry. 

Dative of Place (Poetic). 

§ 190. In poetry, the dative often denotes the place 
ivhere. E. g. 

c E\XdSt vaiav, dwelling in Hellas; alBipi valcov, dwelling in 
heaven; ovpeo-i, on the mountains; to£ a>p,oio-iv €x&v, having the 
bow on his shoulders; p.ip.vei dypto, he remains in the country. Horn. 



150 SYNTAX. [§ 191. 

T H(r0ai Bofiois, to sit at home. Aesch. Nw ay polo- 1 rvyxdva., now he 
happens to be in the country. Soph. 

Note. In prose, the dative of place is chiefly confined to the 
names of Attic demes ; SLsfjMapaOcovi pdxn, the battle at Marathon; 
but only i v 'A rj v a i s . Still some exceptions occur. 

Some adverbs of place are really local datives ; as Tavrrj, rrjbe, here ; 
olkol, at home ; kvkXco, in a circle, all around. See § 61, N. 2. 

PEEPOSITIONS. 

§ 191. 1. The following prepositions take the geni- 
tive : — 

y A[x<j)L, dvrl, and, bta, £k (e£), km, Kara, pcrd, rrapd, irepl, irpo, irpos, 
viTt'p, V7TO, — i. e. all the prepositions except els, iv, avv, and dvd. 
Also avev, arep, axph H-^XPh €V€Ka } and nXfjv, which are sometimes 
called improper prepositions. 

Note. Even dvd takes the genitive in the Homeric dva vtjos ($aiv<o, 
to go on board of a ship. 

2. The following prepositions take the dative : — 

'Ap(j)i, dvd, iv, tiri, fxerd, napd, rrepi, irpos, crvv (£vv), vrro. 

3. The following take the accusative : — 

*Ap(j)i, dvd, did, ds (or is)j km, Kara, perd, napd, irepl, irpos, imp, 
vno, — i. e. all except dvrl, dno, Ik, iv, TTpd, avv. € Qs, to, is some- 
times used for els before words denoting persons. 

Note 1. The meaning and use of the prepositions must be learned 
by practice and from the Lexicon. It will be noticed how- the pecu- 
liar meaning of each case often modifies the original force of a prepo- 
sition. Thus irapd means near, alongside of; and we have napa rod 
PacriXecos, from the neighborhood of the king, — irapa rw /3 a cr i A e I , 
in the neighborhood of the king, — napa, tov /3ao"tXea, into the neigh- 
borhood of the king. 

Note 2. The prepositions were originally adverbs; and as such 
they are sometimes used without a noun, especially in the older 
Greek, — seldom in Attic prose. Thus mpl, roundabout or exceed- 
ingly, in Homer ; npbs 8e or kcu 7Tpos, and besides, in Herodotus. 

Note 3. The preposition of a compound verb may also stand sep- 
arately, in which case its adverbial force plainly appears; as iir\ 



§194.] ADVERBS. 151 

Kv£(f)as rj\6e (for Kvecjias inrjXSe), darkness came on; fjpuv dirb \oiybv 
dfxvvai (for dTrafxvvaC}, to ward off destruction from us. 
This is called tmesis, and is found chiefly in Homer. 

Note 4. A preposition sometimes follows its case, or a verb to 
which it belongs; as vecov airo, naiads iripi ; oKiaras utto (for a7roAe- 
aas). For the accent, see § 23, 2. 

Note 5. A few prepositions are used adverbially with a verb un- 
derstood; as Trap a for 7rapeoTt, eiri and p. era (in Homer) for 
eTreoTi and /xeTeort. So evi for evearn, and ai^a, wp' for d*>aora 
(avdvTrjOi). For the accent, see § 23, 2. 

Note 6. Sometimes eis with the accusative stands, by a peculiar 
mixture of constructions, for iv with the dative; as at £vvodoi is to 
lc pov iylyvovro, the synods were held in the temple (lit. into the temple, 
involving the idea of going into the temple to hold the synods). So 
diro with the genitive for iv with the dative ; as dirjpTrao-ro kcu avra 
ra dirb tQ>v oIkicov £jv\a, even the very timbers in the houses (lit. 
from the houses) had been stolen. 

§ 192. 1. Four prepositions take the genitive only : dvrl, 

a7ro, i< (e£), and npo, — with dvev, arep, ayjpi, H-^XPh cvetca, and 7r\r]V. 

2. Two take the dative only : iv and o-vv (i;vv). 

3. Two take the accusative only : els (is) and eby. 

4. Three take the genitive and accusative : did, Kara, and vnip. 

5. One, dvd, takes the dative and accusative, very rarely the 
genitive (§ 191, 1, Note). The dative is only Epic and Lyric. 

6. Seven take the genitive, dative, and accusative : dfi<j)i, im } 
fi€ra, irapd, nepi, npos, and vtto. 

§ 193. A preposition is often followed by its own case 
when it is part of a compound verb. E. g. 

IIap€Kopi£ovTo ttjv 'iraXiaz/, they sailed along the coast of Italy; 
icrrjkSe pc, it occurred to me ; f) p>f}rr)p crvviir parr ev clvtco ravra, 
his mother assisted him in this (i. e. eVparre <rvv avTcf). For the geni- 
tive, see § 177 ; for the dative, see § 187. 

ADVEKBS. 

§ 194. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. E. g. 

Ovrtos eiVei/, thus he spoke ; o> s dvvapai, as I am able ; w p g>tov 
aTrrjkOe, he first went away ; to dXrjflcos kokov, that which is truly evil ; 
jidWov 7T p€7r6vT<o s ^(pieo-pivrjj more becomingly dressed. 



152 SYNTAX. [§ 195. 

For adjectives used in the sense of adverbs, see § 138, ET. 7. For 
adverbs preceded by the article and qualifying a noun, see § 141, N. 3, 
For negative adverbs, see § 283. 

THE VEEB. 

VOICES. 

Active. 

§ 195, In the active voice the subject is represented as 
acting or being; as rpeirco tovs 6(f>0a\/Aov<;, I turn my eyes; 
6 irarrip <$>i\el top wraiSck, the father loves the child; ovtos 
earc cro^o's, this man is wise. 

Note. The active voice includes most intransitive verbs ; as rpe^co, 
to run; ei/u, to be. Some transitive verbs have certain intransitive 
tenses; as eorrjica, I stand, tan\v, I stood, from Harnfu, to place. Such 
tenses are said to have a middle or & passive meaning. 

The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive ; as ekavvco, 
to drive or to march In the second case vre may supply ipLavrov, 
myself. Compare the English verbs drive, turn, move, &c. 

Passive. 

§ 196. In the passive voice the subject is represented 
as acted upon; as 6 irais virb tov irarpo^ (piXelrai, the 
child is loved by the father. 

§ 197. 1. The object of the active becomes the subject 
of the passive. The subject of the active, the agent, is gen- 
erally expressed by vtto and the genitive in the passive 
construction. 

Xote 1. Other prepositions than vtto with the genitive of the 
agent, though used in poetry, are not common in Attic prose. Such 
are irapd, 7Tpos, e£, and airo. 

Xote 2. When the active is followed by two accusatives, or by 
an accusative and a dative, the case denoting a person is generally 
made the subject of the passive, and the other case remains un- 
changed. E. g. 

Ovdev a\\o diMo-KtrciL av6pco7ros< the man is taught nothing else 
(in the active ovdev aXXo hibdaKovcnv tov avSpuTrov). v A\\o rt 



ff 199.] THE VERB. — VOICES. 153 

fiel^ov €7riTax6f)(T€(r0€, you will have some other greater command im- 
posed on you (act. ciXXo tl p.€l£ov vpiv tmTagovviv, they will impose 
some other greater command on you). Oi li7iT^Tpa\i\iivoL rr\v <\)v\a.Kr)v, 
those to whom the guard has been entrusted (act. liriTpkitziv tx\v cj)v\aKr)V 
tovtols). Aicfi 6 € pav cPTjfjLfjLevoSj clad in a leathern jerkin (act. iva- 
7TT€iv tl tlvl, to Jit a thing on one). So eKKonTcoSaL tov 6<p6akp6v, to 
have his eye cut out, and dwoTefjiveaSai rr\v K€<fid\r]v, to have his head cut 
off, &c, from possible active constructions €kkottt€lv tl tlvl, and 
dnoTep.v€Lv tl tlvl (§ 184, 3 ; 1ST. 4). This construction has nothing to 
do with that of § 160. 

See also § 169 ; 2, Note, for a genitive retained with the passive. 

2. The perfect and pluperfect passive generally take the 
dative of the agent (§ 188, 3). 

The verbal in -re'of or -tIov takes the dative (sometimes the 
accusative) of the agent (§ 188, 4). 

§ 198. Even the cognate accusative (§ 159) can be made 
the subject of the passive. Thus even intransitive verbs can 
have a passive voice. E. g. 

*A<re/3erTcu oidev, no act of impiety is committed (act. ao-cfieiv 
oidev). This occurs chiefly in such participial expressions as tu rjo-e- 
f5rj [leva, the impious' acts which have been committed; to. Kivdvvev- 
QkvTa, the risks which were run: tcl tj fiapTrj \iiva, the errors ivhich 
have been made, &c. 

Middle. 

§ 199, In the middle voice the subject is represented 

1. As acting on himself; as eTpdirovro irpb<$ Xrjo-Teiav, 
they turned themselves to piracy. 

2. As acting for himself ; as 6 SfjfjLOs riderat vo/jlov?, 
the people make laws for themselves, whereas TiBrjcrt, vo/buov? 
would properly be said of a lawgiver. 

3. As acting on an object which belongs to himself; as 
rjkOe \vadfji€vo<; dvyarpa, he came to ransom his (pvm) 
daughter. Horn. 

Note 1. The last two uses may be united in one verb, as in the 
last example. Often the middle expresses no more than is implied in 
the active; thus TpoTiaiov Io-tclo-Bcll, to raise a trophy for themselves, 
generally adds nothing to what is implied in Tponaiov io~Tavai, to 



154 SYNTAX. [§ 200. 

raise a trophy ; and either form can be used. The middle sometimes 
does not differ at all from the active; as the poetic IdeaOai, to see, 
and IdeTv. 

Note 2. The middle sometimes has a causative meaning; as edi- 
da^dfirjv ere, I had you taught. 

This gives rise to some special uses of the middle ; as in Save [fa , to 
lend, Savei^opai, to borrow {cause somebody to lend to one's self). So 
fiio-doco, to let, ixio-OoofiaL, to hire {cause to be let to ones self). 

Note 3. The middle of certain verbs is peculiar in its meaning. 
Thus, d7rodtbcoui } to give back, a7roS/So/i,at, to sell ; ypdtyco, to write or to 
propose a vote, ypd(pofjLaL, to indict; Tt/za>pa) rivi, I avenge a person, 
Tificopov/jLcii nva, I avenge myself on a person or / punish a person; 
anrcd, to fasten, a.Trro\iai, to cling to (so e^o) and exofiai). 

The passive of some of these verbs is used as a passive to both 
active and middle; thus ypa<prjvai can mean either to be written or 
to be indicted. 

Note 4. The future middle of some verbs has a passive sense ; 
as ddiKea), to wrong, ddacrjo-ofiai, I shall be wronged. 

TENSES. 

I. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 

§ 200. The tenses of the indicative express action as 
follows : — 

Present, continued present action ; ypcxfrco, I am writing. 

Imperfect, continued past action ; eypacpov, I was writing. 

Perfect, action finished in present time ; ytypacfra, I have 
written. 

Pluperfect, action finished in past time ; iyeypdfetu, I had 
written. 

Aorist, simple past action ; eypnyj/a, I wrote. 

Future, simple future action ; ypdxj/oo, I shall write. 

Future Perfect, action to be finished in future time ; yeypd- 
\J/€tcu, it will have been written. 

Note 1. In narration, the present is sometimes used vividly for 
the aorist ; ^snopeveraL wpos ftacrikea rj ibvvaro rdxicrTa, he goes 
(went) to the king as fast as he could. 

For the present expressing a general truth, see § 205, 1. 



§ 200.] TENSES. 155 

Note 2. The present and especially the imperfect often express 
an attempted action ; as ire 16 ov cr i vpas, they are trying to persuade 
you / f AXovurjcrov e d id ov, he offered (tried to give) Halonnesus ; a 
in pa a o~ €to ovk iyevero, what mas attempted did not happen. 

Note 3. The presents tJkco, I am come, and oixo/xat, I am gone, 
have the force of perfects ; the imperfects having the force of pluper- 
fects. 

The present dpi, I am going, has a future sense. 

Note 4. The present with nakai or other expression of past time 
has the force of a present and perfect combined ; as n a X a i aoi tovto 
Xeyco, I have long been telling you this (which I now tell). 

Note 5. The aorist takes its name (dopio-ros, unlimited, unquali- 
fied) from its denoting a simple past occurrence, with none of the 
limitations (opoi) as to completion, continuance, &c, which belong to 
the other past tenses. It corresponds exactly to the so-called imper- 
fect in English, whereas the Greek imperfect corresponds to the forms 
I was doing, &c. Thus, eiroiei tovto is he was, doing this or he did 
this habitually; neTto'intce tovto is he has already done this; eVe^ou}- 
Kei tovto is he had already (at some past time) done this ; but ino'ino-* 
tovto is simply he did this, without qualification of any kind. 

The aorist of verbs which denote a state or condition generally 
expresses the entrance into that state or condition ; as 7rXovrea>, to be 
rich ; IttKovtow, I was rich ; eVAour^cra, I became rich. So efiaaikevo-e, 
he became ting ; rjp^e, he obtained office. 

- The distinction between the imperfect and aorist was sometimes 
neglected, especially in the earlier Greek. See fialvov and /3f} in U. 
I. 437 and 439; /3aXXero and fiakeTO in II. II. 43 and 45; eXinev and 
XeiTre, II. II. 106 and 107. 

Note 6. Some perfects have a present meaning; as Ovrjo-Keiv, to 
die, T€0vr]K€vai, to be dead ; yiyvecrOai, to become, yeyovevai, to 
be; ptpvr)o-K€iv, to remind, pe pvrj o-6ai, to remember; KaXelv, to call, 
K€ic\rja6ai, to be called. So olda, I know, novi. This is usually 
explained by the meaning of the verb. 

In such verbs the pluperfect has the force of an imperfect; as 
ffftecy, I knew (§ 130, 2). 

Note 7. The perfect sometimes refers vividly to the future ; as 
et pe alo-6r)o-€Tai, 6\co\a, if he shall perceive me, I am ruined (perii). 
So sometimes the present; as anoWvpai, I perish! (for I shall perish). 

Note 8. The second person of the future may express a permis- 
sion, or even a command; as it page is olov av 6e\ys, you may act as 



156 SYNTAX. [§201. 

you please; navrcos §e tovto dpdoreis, and by all means do this (you 
shall do this). So in imprecations; as diroXelotie, to destruction with 
you! (lit. you shall perish). See § 257. 

Note 9. The future perfect is sometimes merely an emphatic 
future, denoting that a future act will be immediate or decisive : as 
<f)pd(€ Ka\ TrcrrpdgeTai, speak, and it shall be (no sooner said than) 

done. 

• 

§ 201, The division of the tenses of the indicative into 
primary and secondary (or historical) is explained in § 90, 2. 

In dependent clauses, when the construction allows both 
subjunctive and optative, or both indicative and optative, 
the subjunctive or indicative regularly follows primary 
tenses, and the optative follows secondary tenses. E. g. 

TIpdrTovo- iv a av /3 ovXcoura i , they do whatever they please ; 
en parrov a /3ov\o ivto, they did whatever they pleased. Aeyov- 
<riv on tovto fiovXovTai, they say that they wish for this , e'Xe^av 
on tovto (3ov\oivto, they said that they wished for this. 

These constructions will be explained hereafter (§ 233 and § 243). 

The gnomic aorist is a primary tense, as it refers to present time 
(§ 205, 2) ; and the historic present is secondary, as it refers to past 
time (§ 200, K 1). 

Note 1. The only exception to this principle occurs in indirect 
discourse, where the form of the direct discourse can always be re- 
tained, even after secondary tenses. See § 242. 

Note 2. The distinction into primary and secondary tenses ex- 
tends to the dependent moods only where the tenses keep the same 
distinction of time which they have in the indicative. It is impor- 
tant chiefly in the infinitive in indirect discourse (§ 203). 

II. TENSES OF THE DEPENDENT MOODS. 
A. Not in Indirect Discourse. 

§ 202. In the subjunctive and imperative, and also in the 
optative and infinitive when they are not in indirect discourse 
(§ 203), the tenses chiefly used are the present and aorist. 

1. These tenses here differ only in this, that the present 
denotes a continued or repeated action, while the aorist denotes 
a simple occurrence of the action, the time of both being precisely 
the same. E. g. 



§ 202.] TENSES. 157 

9 Eav ttoltj tovto, if he shall do this (habitually*), eav irotr)a"n tovto, 
(simply) if he shall do this; el iroiolr) tovto, if he should do this 
(habitually), el it oir)o~ e te tovto, (simply) if he should do this; no let 
tovto, do this (habitually), iroinvov tovto, (simply) do this. Ovtco 
vlkt) a" a i fi I t eyco kcu v o pi £o l prj v o~o<pos, on this condition may 
I gain the victory (aor.) and be considered (pres.) wise. BovXctcu tovto 
7roie7v, he zoishes to do this (habitually) , fiovXeTai tovto iroir)o-ai, 
(simply) he wishes to do this. 

This is a distinction entirely unknown to the Latin, which has (for 
example) only one form, si faciat, corresponding to el noioln and 
ei TTOLrjo-eiev. Even the Greek does not always regard it ; and in 
many cases it is indifferent which tense is used. 

2. The perfect, when it occurs in these constructions, rep- 
resents an action as finished at the time at which the present 
would represent it as going on. E. g. 

AedoiKa pi) XrjOrju n en o it) kv , I fear lest it may prove to have caused 
forgetfulness (fir) novr) would mean lest it may cause). Mrjdevl ponOelv 
bs av pr) nporepos fie ft on On kg) s vplv 77, to help no one who shall not 
previously have helped you (bs av ur) . . . . ftorj Ojj would mean who 
shall not previously help you). Ovk av hia tovto y elev ovk evOvs 
hedcoKOTes, they would not (on inquiry) prove to have failed to pay 
on this account (with dcdolev this would mean they would not fail to 
pay). Ov ftovXev e cr 6 ai eTi wpa, aXXa ft e ftovXev o~ 6 ai, it is no 
longer time to be deliberating, but (it is time) to have finished deliberating. 

Note 1. The perfect imperative generally expresses a command 
that something shall be decisive and permanent ; as TavTa elpr)o~0(D, 
let this have been said (i. e. let what has been said be final), or let this 
(which follows) be said once for all; /xe^pt Tovde cbpio-6<o vp&v r) 
fipaBvTrjs, at this point let the limit of your sluggishness be fixed. This 
is confined to the third person singular passive ; the rare second per- 
son singular middle being merely emphatic. The active is used only 
when the perfect has a present meaning (§ 200, N. 6). 

Note 2. The perfect infinitive is sometimes used like the impera- 
ive (Note 1), and sometimes it is merely emphatic; as ehov tt)v 
Kpav KexXelo- 6 at, they ordered the gate to be shut (and kept so); 
fkavvev eVl tovs Mevavcs, coctt eKeivovs e kit eirXr) %6 at kol Tpe^eiv 
m\ tcl 6nXa, so that they were (once for all) thoroughly frightened and 
?an to arms (the perfect here is merely more emphatic than the pres- 
ent). The regular meaning of this tense, when it is not in indirect 
discourse, is that given in § 202, 2. 

3. The future infinitive is regularly used only in indirect 
discourse (§ 203). 



158 SYNTAX. [§ 203. 

It occurs occasionally in other constructions, in place of the 
regular present or aorist, to make more emphatic the future 
idea which the infinitive receives from the context. E. g. 

^'EberjBrjaav rcov Meyapecov vava\ acfids ^v p.ir p ott e p.^r € lv, they 
asked the Megarians to escort them with ships; ovk clttokcoXv o-eiv 
dwarol owes, not being able to prevent So rarely after coore, and to 
express a purpose. In all these constructions the future is strictly 
exceptional, the only regular forms of the infinitive out of indirect 
discourse being the present and aorist, except in the few cases in 
which the perfect is used (§ 202, 2) and in the case mentioned in the 
following Note. See also § 203, N. 2. 

Note. One regular exception to the principle just stated is found 
in the periphrastic future (§ 98, 3), where the present and future in- 
finitives w r ith jLte'XXo) are equally common, but the aorist is very rare. 

4. The future optative is used only in indirect discourse 
(§ 203, N. 3). Even here the future indicative generally takes ita 
place. See also § 217, and § 248, Note. 

B. In Indirect Discourse. 

Eemark. The term indirect discourse includes all clauses depending 
on a verb of saying or thinking which contain the thoughts or words 
of any person stated indirectly ) i. e. incorporated into the general 
structure of the sentence. It includes of course all indirect quota- 
tions and questions. 

§ 203. When the optative and infinitive stand in indirect 
discourse, each tense represents the corresponding tense of a 
verb in the direct discourse. E. g. 

""EXeyei/ otl y p a (fi o i , he said that he was writing (lie said ypdcfico, I 
am writing) ; eXeyev otl ypd\jrot, he said that he would write (he said 
ypd\j/co, I will write) ; eXeyev otl y pdyj/e lc p, he said that he had writ- 
ten (he said eypa\f/a) ; cXeyev otl yeypacfrasctr), he said that he 
had already written (he said yeypa<fia). v Hpero ft tls e/xoO e.iq cro<fid>- 
repos, he asked whether any one was iviser than I (he asked eori rty;). 

&r}o\ y pd<j) € lv, he says that he is writing (he says ypd(pco) ; (fina\ 
y p d \fs € l v , he says that he tvill icrite (ypd\j/co) ; (final y pdyjrai, he says 
that he wrote (eypa\jra) ; (final y ey p a(fi e v at , he says that he has writ- 
ten (yeypacfia). 

Elncv otl (ivhpa ayoi bv elp^aL Seot, he said that he teas bringing 
a man ichom it was necessary to confine (be said avhpa aycobv elp^ai 
Set). :> 'E\oyi£oPTO cos, el fir) fxd^o lvto , cltt o ctttj o~ o lvt o ai tto- 



§ 204.] TENSES. 159 

Xets, they considered that, if they should not fight, the cities would revolt 
(they thought idv pr) /xa^co/xe^a, an oo~tt) govt at, if we do not 
fight, they will revolt). 

These constructions will be explained in § 243 ; § 246 ; and § 247, 1. 
They are given here merely to show the different force of the tenses 
in indirect discourse and in other constructions. Compare especially 
the difference between (j)rja\ y p d <£ e i v and (final y pd\jsai under 
§ 203 with that between fiovXerai not civ and fiovXerai woirjcrai 
under § 202. Notice also the same distinction in respect to the pres- 
ent and aorist optative. 

Note 1. The present infinitive represents the imperfect as well as 
the present indicative ; as rluas cv^ds virokap.fidv€T e # ^ e o~ 6ai rbv 
Qikiinrov or eanepdev ; what prayers do you suppose Philip made when 
he was pouring libations? (i. e. rlvas nvx^ro;). The perfect infinitive 
likewise represents both perfect and pluperfect. 

So rarely the present optative represents the imperfect indicative. 
See § 243, Note 1. 

Note 2. Yerbs of hoping, expecting, promising, &c, form an inter- 
mediate class between verbs which take the infinitive in indirect 
discourse and those which do not (see Rem. before § 203) ; and they 
allow either the future infinitive (as in § 203) or the present and 
aorist (as in § 202). E. g. 

*HA7ri£oz> paxV" co-c-o-Bai, they expected that there would be a battle 
(Thuc); but a ovirore yXmaeu iraSelv, what he never expected to 
suffer (Eur.). 'Yneo-x^ro /xot ]3 ov\e v cr ao- Bat, and v7r€0-x €TO jitj- 
Xavrjv 7rape£eiz/ (both in Xen.) 

The construction of indirect discourse (the future) is the more 
common here. In English we can say / hope (expect or promise) to 
do this (like noieiv or 7roir)(rai), or / hope I shall do this (like ttolt]<t€lv). 

Note 3. The future optative is never used except as the repre- 
sentative of the future indicative, either in indirect discourse (as in 
the examples under § 203), or in the construction of § 217 (which is 
governed by the principles of indirect discourse). 

III. TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

§ 204. The tenses of the participle express generally 
the same time as those of the indicative; but they are 
present, past, or future relatively to the time of the verb 
with which they are connected. E. g. 



160 SYNTAX. • [§205. 

'AfAaprdvei tovto ttoi&v, he errs in doing this ; rj paprave tovto 
ttoiqov, he erred in doing this; a paprrj a- c i tovto ttoicqv, he will err in 
doing this. (Here ttolcdp is first present, then past, then future, abso- 
lutely ; but always present to the verb of the sentence.) Tavra 
cIttovt es a7rrj\6ov, having said this, they departed. Ov 7roXXol 0at- 
vovrai tjvvcXOovTe s, not many appear to have joined the expedition. 
'Eiriivecrav tovs elprjKOTas, they praised those who had {already) 
spoken. Tovto no lj) ctcdv ep^Tai, he is coming to do this ; tovto 
tt oltjo- cov rj\6ev, he came to do this. 

Note 1. The present here represents also the imperfect; as olba 
KaKelvco o~ cocj) p ovovvt e, core 2o)Kpdret o-vvT}o~Tr)v, I know that they 
loth were continent as long as they associated with Socrates (i. e. 
€0~co(f)poveLTnv) • 

JSTote 2. The aorist participle in certain constructions does not 
denote time past with reference to the leading verb, but expresses a 
simple occurrence without regard to time (like the aorist infinitive in 
§ 202). This is so in the following examples : — 

"Etvxcv i\Bcov, he happened to come; ZXaOev e\6a>v, he came 
secretly; e<$6n £\6cov, he came first (See §279, 2.) nepudelv ttjv 
yrjv TfirjOela-av, to allow the land to be ravaged (to see it ravaged). 
(See § 279, 3.) Eu y iivoino-as dvapvt] a as /xe, you did well in re' 
minding me, and elsewhere when the participle denotes that in which 
the action of the verb consists. (See § 277.) 

IT. GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES. 

§ 205. 1. The present is the tense commonly used in 
Greek, as in English, to denote a general truth or an habit- 
ual action ; as nrXolov eU ArfKov AOrjvaloL TrepLirovaiv, 
the Athenians send a ship to Delos (annually). 

2. In animated language, the aorist is used in this sense. 
This is called the gnomic aorist, and is generally translated 
by the English present. E. g. 

Hv tls tovtodv tl tt apaBaivy , f>7/xiai> clvtoIs en e 6 eo-av, i. e. they 
impose a penalty on all who transgress. Mi" fjpepa tov pkv KadelXev 
vy\r6dcv, tov $' rjp* avoo, one day (often) brings down one man from a 
height and raises another high. 

Note 1. Here one distinct case in past time is vividly used to 
represent all possible cases. Examples containing such adverbs as 
iroXXaKis, often, fjbr), already, ovttco, never yet, illustrate the construc- 
tion; as ddvpovvres avdpes ovnco Tpoiraiov earr] aav, disheartened 
men never yei raised a trophy. 



§ 207.] THE PARTICLE "AN. 161 

Xote 2. An aorist resembling the gnomic is found in Homeric 
similes; as rjpLTre 8 cos ore tls dpvs rjpnrsv, and he fell, as when 
some oak falls (lit. as when an oak once fell). 

Note 3. The gnomic aorist occurs in the infinitive and participle. 

3. The perfect sometimes has a gnomic sense, like the aorist. 
Kg. 

'Enei hdv tls irap e/xoC fJiddrj, iav fiev (3ov\rjTai, an ob e b co k e v 6 
iyco TrpaTTOfjuii, apyvpiov, when any one has been my pupil, if he pleases, 
he pays the sum of money which I ask. 

The gnomic perfect may be used in the infinitive. 

§ 2G6. The imperfect and aorist are sometimes used 
with the adverb dp to denote a customary action. E. g. 

Aitj pcbrcov av avrovs ri \eyoiev, I used to ask them {I would often 
ask them) what they said. UoWaKis tj Kovaafiev av vfids, we used 
often to hear you. 

This construction must be carefully distinguished from the ordi- 
nary apodosis with av (§ 222). It is equivalent to our phrase he 
would often do this for he used to do this. 

JSTote. The Ionic has iterative forms in -cr kov and -ctko [jltjv in 
both imperfect and aorist. (See § 122, 2.) Herodotus uses these 
also with av, as above. 

THE PARTICLE >; AN. 

§ 207. The adverb dv (Epic tee) has two distinct uses. 

1. It is joined to all the secondary tenses of the indica- 
tive (in Homer also to the future indicative), and to the 
optative, infinitive, or participle, to denote that the action 
of the verb is dependent on some condition, expressed or 
Implied. Here it belongs to the verb. 

2. It is joined regularly to et ? if, and to all relative and 
temporal words (and occasionally to the final particles a>? ? 
oVg)?, and o<f>pa), when these are followed by the subjunc- 
tive. Here it belongs entirely to the particle or relative, 
with which it often forms one word, as in edp, orav, eireihdv. 

There is no English word which can translate av. In its first use 
it is expressed in the would or should of the verb ((3ov\ot,ro av, he 
would wish ; iXoluTjv av, I should choose). In its second use it has no 
force which can be made apparent in English. 



162 SYNTAX. [§ 208. 

The above statement (§ 207) includes all regular uses of av except 
the Epic construction explained in § 255, and the iterative construc- 
tion of § 206. The following sections (§§ 208-211) enumerate the 
various uses of av, with reference to the sections in which they are 
explained in full. 

§ 208. 1. The pr esent and perfect indicative never take av. 

2. The future indicative often takes av (or Ke) in the early 
poets, especially in Homer ; very rarely in Attic Greek. E. g. 

Kai Ke tls cod' epeei, and perhaps some one will thus speak; aXXoi, 
oi Ke fxe TLfjLTjcrovo-i, others iclio will honor me {if occasion offers). The 
future with av seems to have been an intermediate form between the 
simple future, will ho?ior y and the optative with av, icould honor. One 
of the few examples found in Attic prose is in Plat. Apol. p. 29 C. 

3. The most common use of av with the indicative is when it 
forms an apodosis with the secondary tenses. It here denotes 
that the condition upon which the action of the verb depends 
is not or ivas not fulfilled. See § 222. 

For the iterative construction of av, see § 206. 

§ 209. 1. In Attic Greek the subjunctive is used with av 
only in the construction mentioned in § 207, 2, where av belongs 
to the introductory word. See § 223, § 225, § 232, 3, § 233 ; 
also § 216, 1, N. 2. 

2. In Epic poetry, where the subjunctive is often used 
nearly or quite in the sense of the future indicative (§ 255), it 
may, like the future (§ 208, 2), take av or kI E. g. 

Ei he Ke jjlt) baxxxriv, eyco Se Kev avros e\cou,ai, and if they do not 
give her up ) I ivill take her myself. 

§ 210. The optative with av forms an apodosis, with which 
a condition must be either expressed or implied. It denotes 
what would happen if the condition should be fulfilled (§ 224). 

The future optative is never used with av. See § 203, N. 3. 

§ 211. The present and aorist (rarely the perfect) infinitive 
and participle are used with av to form an apodosis. Each 
tense is here equivalent to the corresponding tense of the indica- 
tive or optative with av, — the present representing also the 
imperfect, and the perfect also the pluperfect. 

Thus the present infinitive or participle with av may repre- 



§ 212.] THE PARTICLE "AN. 163 

sent either an imperfect indicative or a present optative with av ; 
the aorist, either an aorist indicative or an aorist optative with 
av ; the perfect, either a pluperfect indicative or a perfect optative 
with av. E. g. 

$ncr\v avrovs e\ev6epovs av elvai, el tovto eir pa^av, he says 
that they would (now) be free (rjaav av), if they had done this ; (prjalv 
avrovs e\ev6epovs av elvat,, el tovto 7r pd£ e lav, he says that they 
would (hereafter) be free (elev av), if they should do this. Olda avTovs 
i\ev8epovs av ovTas, el tovto eir pa£av, I know that they would 
(now) be free (rjcrav av), if they had done this ; olba avTovs eXevQepovs 
av ovTas, el Tavra it pd^eiav, I know that they would (hereafter) be 
free (elev av), if they should do this. 

&ao~\v avTov eXOelv av (or ol8a avTov e\B ovra av), el tovto 
eyeveTo, they say (or I know) that he would have come (rj\6ev civ), 
if this had happened: (faacrlv avrov eXdelv av (or olda uvtov e\- 
BovTa av), el tovto yevoiTo, they say (or / know) that he would 
come (e\6oL av), if this should happen. 

The context must decide in each case whether we have the equiva- 
lent of the indicative or the optative with av. In the examples 
given, the form of the protasis settles the question. 

Note. As the early poets who use the future indicative with av 
(§ 208, 2) do not use this construction, the future infinitive and 
participle with av are very rarely found. 

§ 212. 1. When av is nsed with the subjunctive (as in 
§ 207, 2), it can be separated from the introductory word only 
by Such particles as fiev, de, re, yap, &c. 

2. In a long apodosis av may be used twice or even three 

times With the same verb; as ovk av Tjyelaff avTov kclv eiribpa- 
fielv, do yon not think that he would even have rushed thither? 
In Xen. Anab. I. 3, 6, av is used three times with elvai. 

3. v Av may be used elliptically with a verb understood ; as 
ol oi/cerat peyKOvaiv dXX' ovk av irpb tov (sc. eppeyKov), the slaves are 
snoring ; but they would n.t have done so once. 

4. When an apodosis consists of several co-ordinate verbs, av 
is generally used only with the first. 

Note. The adverb Taxa, in the sense of perhaps, is often prefixed 
to av, in which case Tax av is nearly equivalent to 'lo~cos, perhaps. 
The av here always forms an apodosis, as usual, with the verb of the 
sentence. 



164 SYNTAX. [§ 213. 

THE MOODS. 

§ 213. 1. The indicative is used in simple, absolute 
assertions ; as ypdcpei, he writes ; eypaylrev, he wrote ; 
ypdyfrei,, he ivill ivrite ; yey patfiev, he has written. 

It also expresses certain other relations which the fol- 
lowing examples will illustrate : — 

Ei tovto aknBis Ictti, x ai P ( °i if ^is is true, I rejoice; ei eypa- 
yjrev, r/XOov av, if he had written, I should have come; cl ypdyjrei, 
yvcdcrofiai, if he shall write (or if he writes), I shall know (§ 220). 
'ETU/xeXetrai ottcds tovto yevr) o-eTai, he takes care that this shall hap- 
pen. (§217.) Et#e jx€ e ktc iv as, as prjnoTe tovto iiro Irj a- a, 
that thou hadst killed me, that I might never have done this ! (§ 251, 2, 
§ 216, 3.) EWe tovto dXrjOes f)v, that this were true ! (§ 251, 2.) 

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to. Their 
variety shows the impossibility of giving any precise definition, which 
will be of practical value, including all the uses even of the indica- 
tive. With the subjunctive and optative it is equally impossible. 

2. The various uses of the subjunctive are shown , by 
the following examples : — 

*EpxcTai Iva tovto 'Idy, he is coming that he may see this; <£o/3eIrat 
fir) tovto yevrjTai, he fears lest this may happen. (§ 216; §218.) 
*Eav tXdrj, tovto 7roir}crco, if he shall come (or if he comes), I shall do 
this; lav tls eXSrj, tovto ttolco, if any one (ever) comes, I (always) 
do this. (§220.) "OTav eXBrj , tovto 770*770-©, when he shall come (or 
ivhen he comes), I shall do this : orav tls cXOtj, tovto ttolg>, when any 
one comes, I (always) do this. (§ 232, 3 ; § 233.) 

"icofiev, let us go. (§ 253.) Mr) Sav fido-qTc, do not wonder. 
(§254.) Tt c'ittco ; what shall I say ? (§256.) Ov fir) tovto yevrjraL, 
this (surely) will not happen. (§ 257.) 

3. The various uses of the optative are shown by the 

following examples : — 

T H\&z/ Iva tovto Iboi, he came that he might see this : e$oj3eiro fir) 
tovto yevoiTo, he feared lest this should happen. (§ 216; § 218.) 
Et eXSoiy tovt cw n oir) craifii, if he should come, I should do this ; 
€t tls ZXQoL, tovt cTTOLovv, if any one (ever) came, I always did this. 
(§ 220.) "Ore eXSoi, tovt av n o Lr) a ai fiL, whenever he should 
come (at any time when he should come), I should do this; ore tls 
e'XOoi, tovt iiroiovv, whenever any one came, I (always) did this. 



§ 215.] THE MOODS. 165 

(§ 232, 4; § 233.) Elttcv otl tovto ttoloItj (71*0 1170*01 or ttoiy)- 
aeie), he said that he teas doing (would do or had done) this. (§ 243.) 
"E \ 6 o i aV, he might go (if he should wish to). Et'tfe [xrj diroXoivTo, 
that they may not perish ! (§ 251, 1.) 

4. The imperative is used to express commands and 
prohibitions ; as tovto ttoUl, do this ; firj favyeTe, do not 

M 

5. The infinitive is a verbal noun, which expresses the 
simple idea of a verb without restriction of person or 
number. 

§ 214. The following sections (§§215-257) treat of all 
constructions which require any other form of the finite verb 
than the indicative in simple assertions (§ 213, 1). The infin- 
itive and participle are included here only so far as they are 
used in indirect discourse or in protasis and apodosis. These 
constructions .are divided as follows : — 

I. Final and Object clauses after tva, ebs, was, and fit}. IT. 
Conditional sentences. III. Relative and Temporal sentences. 
IV. Indirect Discourse. V. Causal sentences. VI. Wishes. 
VII. Commands, Exhortations, and Prohibitions. VIII. Ho- 
meric Subjunctive (like Future Indicative). — Interrogative 
Subjunctive. — Ov pf) with Subjunctive or Future Indicative. 

I. FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES AFTER 'Iva, a>9, otto)?, firj. 

§ 215. The clauses which depend on the final particles 
wa, &>?, 07r&)? ? that, in order that, and fiy, lest, that not, may 
be divided into three classes : — 

A. Final clauses, expressing the purpose or motive ; as 
ep^eTai "iva tovto I 7 S 77, he is coming that he may see this. 
Here all the final particles may be used. 

B. Object clauses with ottcds after verbs signifying to 
strive for, to care for, &c. ; as cncoirei 6770)? tovto yevr}o~€Tai } 
see to it that this is clone. 

C. Object clauses with /itj after verbs of fear or caution ; 
as fyofielTai fjjq tovto yevrjTat, he fears lest this may happen. 



166 SYNTAX. [§ 216. 

Eemark. The first two classes are to be distinguished with special 
care. The object clauses in B are the direct object of the leading 
verb, and can even stand in apposition to an object accusative like 
tovto', as cr/coVet tovto, ottcos fir) ere oyj/eTai, see to this, namely, 
that he does not see you. Bat a final clause could stand in apposition 
only to tovtov eveica, for the sake of this, or dt,a tovto, to this end ; as 
epxerat, tovtov eveica, tva r)fias !'$#> he is coming for this purpose, 
namely, that he may see us. 

Note 1. The negative adverb in all these clauses is fir)] except 
after fir), lest, where ov is used. 

Note 2. *0<fipa, that, is used as a final particle in Epic and Lyric 
poetry. 

A. Final Clauses. 

§ 216. 1. Final clauses take the subjunctive after pri- 
mary tenses, and the optative after secondary tenses. E. g. 

AiavoeiTai Tr)u yecpvpav Xvcrai, cos fir) d laftrJT e. he thinks of break- 
ing up the bridge, that you may not pass over. AucrireXet iacrai iv tw 
TvapovTi, fir) kol tovtov iroXefiLov it pocr 8 co fie 6 a, it is expedient to 
allow it for a time, lest we may add him to the number of our enemies. 
TLapaicaXeis laTpovs, ottcos fir) airoBavn, you call in physicians, that 
he may not die. ®[Xos efiovXeTo elvai toIs fieyitTTa hwapevois, tva 
dbiKcov fir) $ ido lt) 8 lktjv, he wished to be a friend to the most power- 
ful, that he might do wrong and not be punished. Tovtov Zveica (piXcov 
g>€to biiaBai, cos crvvepyovs e^ot, he thought he needed friends for 
this purpose, namely, that he might have helpers. 

Note 1. The future indicative occasionally takes the place of the 
subjunctive in final clauses after ottos and oeppa, rarely after pfj. This 
is almost entirely confined to poetry. See Odyss. I. 56, IY. 163 ; IL 
XVI. 242, XX. 301. 

Note 2. The adverb fo ( K £) is sometimes joined with cos, ottcos, 
and o(f)pa before the subjunctive in final clauses; as cos av fiaOns, 
avTCLKova-ov, hear the other side, that you may learn. It adds nothing to 
the sense that can be made perceptible in English. In Homer and 
Herodotus it is occasionally used in the same way even before an 
optative. 

2. As final clauses express the purpose or motive of some 
person, they admit the double construction of indirect discourse 
(§ 242). Hence, instead of the optative after secondary tenses, 
we can have the mood aud tense which would be used when a 



§ 217.J THE MOODS. 167 

person conceived the purpose in his own mind ; that is, we can 
say either rjXQev tva X8oi, he came that he might see (§ 216. 1), 
or rjkBev tva tdn, because the person himself would have said 
Zpxo/xai tva td(o, I come that I may see. (See § 248, Note.) 

On this principle the subjunctive in final clauses after sec- 
ondary tenses is nearly as common as the more regular opta- 
tive. E. g. 

Tl\oia KaT€Kav<T€v tva pr) Kvpos diafijj, he burned the vessels, that 
Cyrus might not pass over. 

3. The secondary tenses of the indicative are used in final 
clauses with tva, sometimes with w? or O7rcoj, to denote that the 
end or object is dependent on some unfulfilled condition, and 
therefore is not or was not attained. E. g. 

Ti fi ov \a(3cov €KT€ivas evOiis, cos ede i£a }ir]7roTt ; &c, why did you 
not take me and kill me at once, that I might never have shown ? &c. 
OeO, <p€v, to pr) to. irpdypar avSpcoirois €X €lv ^ )(iiV h v ^ ^ V °" av pv^hf 
ot detvoi Xoyot, Alas! alas! that the facts have no voice for men, so that 
words of eloquence might be as nothing. 

B. Object Clauses with frirtos after Verbs of Striving, &c. 

§ 217, Object clauses depending on verbs signifying 
to strive for, to care for, to effect, regularly take the future 
indicative after both primary and secondary tenses. 

The future optative may be used after secondary tenses, as 
the -correlative of the future indicative, but commonly the in- 
dicative is retained on the principle explained in § 216, 2. 
(See § 202, 4.) E. g. 

Qp6vTi£ 07TC09 prjftev dvdtjiov rrjs riprjs ravrrjs it p d£ e is, take heed 
that you do nothing unworthy of this honor. 'Eprixavapeda oiras prjSeis 
• . . . yvaxr o ito, we were planning that nobody should know it (here 
yvwcrerai would be more common). "Enpacroov onto? tis fionQeia 
rj^ei, they were trying to effect (fhis) ) that some assistance should come. 

Note 1. Sometimes the present or aorist subjunctive or optative 
is used after these verbs, as in final clauses. Here also o>s may be 
used. 'Onus av or ws av may be used before the subjunctive, never 
before the regular future indicative. Mr) is sometimes used for oncos 
pi), generally with the subjunctive. 

Note 2. The future indicative with 07ra>s sometimes follows verbs 



168 SYNTAX. § 218. 

of exhorting, entreating, commanding, and forbidding, which commonly 
take an infinitive of the object; as diciKeXzvovTai oncos r t pco prj ere rat 
ttclvtcls tovs tolovtovs, they exhort him to take vengeance on all such, 

Note 3. The construction of § 217 is not found in Homer ; but 
such verbs as are mentioned in Note 2, and verbs signifying to con- 
sider, to try, and the like, take oncos or cos with the subjunctive and 
optative, as in final clauses. E. g. 

Aio-aeaQaL 6V piv avros oncos vrjpepTea etnrj, and implore him thy- 
self to speak the truth ; XiVcrero 6° alei c/ H<fiaio~Tov KXvroepyov oncos 
X v a e i e v * Apna, he implored him to liberate Ares. So cppdcrcreTai cos 
K€ v e n t a i ; fiovXevov oncos o)l apicrra yevoiro, 

Note 4. Both on cos and oncos prj are often used with the future 
indicative in exhortations or prohibitions, some imperative like vKonei 
or gkot7€it€, take care, being understood. E. g. 

"Onco s ovv eaeo-Oe a^ioi ttjs iXevOepias, (see that you) prove your- 
selves worthy of freedom. "On cos pot p) epels oti eo-ri ra dcodeica 
d\s e£, see that you do not tell me that twelve is twice six. For a similar 
ellipsis of a verb of fearing, see § 218, N. 2. 

C. Object Clauses with jjltj after Verbs of Fearing, &c. 

§ 218, After verbs denoting fear, caution, or danger, 
pr], lest or that, takes the subjunctive after primary tenses, 
and the optative after secondary tenses. 

The subjunctive may also follow secondary tenses, to retain 
the mood in which the fear originally occurred to the mind. 
E. g. 

Qofiovpai prj tovto ytv-nrai (vereor ne accidat), I fear that this 
may happen; cfio(3ovpaL pr) ov tovto yevnTai (vereor ut accidat), / 
fear that this may not happen (§ 215, N. 1). ®pov-i(cD prj KpaTivTov 
$ pot criyav, I am anxious lest it may be best for me to be silent. Ovk€tl 
entTldevTo, oVStoVe? prj an or pn 6 e in cr av, they no longer made at- 
tacks, fearing lest they should be cut off. y E(poPovvTo pr) rt na&n, 
they feared lest he should suffer anything (§ 216, 2). 

Note 1. The future indicative is very rarely used after pr) in this 
construction. But oncos pr) is sometimes used here, as in the object 
clauses of § 217, with both future indicative and subjunctive. 

Note 2. Mr) with the subjunctive, or oncos pr) with the future 
indicative, may be used elliptically, a verb of fear or caution being 
understood. E. g. 



§ 220.] THE MOODS. 169 

Mr) dypoLKOT€ P ov fj to dXrjdi? eiWi/, (I fear that) the truth may be 
too rude a thing to say. 'AAAa p.r) ov tovt fj xaXe7roV, but {I fear 
that) this may not be the difficult thing. See § 217, N- 4. 

Note 3. Verbs of fearing may refer to objects of fear which are 
present or past. Here fir) takes the present and past tenses of the 
indicative. E. g. 

AedoiKa fxr) 7r\r)yiov deci, J fear that you need blows. QoPovpcBa 
p.r) dfx(j)OT€pcov dfia i) p. a pri) ko. pe v , we fear that we have missed both 
at once. Aeibco pr) dr) iravra Oca vrjpeprla cinev, I fear that all 
which the Goddess said was true. (Horn.) "Opa p.r) naifrv t^cyev, 
beware lest he was speaking in jest. 

II. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 

§ 219. 1. In conditional sentences the clause contain- 
ing the condition is called the protasis, and that containing 
the conclusion is called the apodosis. The protasis is 
introduced by el, if. 

The Doric at for ei is sometimes used in Homer. 

2. The adverb av (Epic tee ) is regularly joined to el in 
the protasis when the verb is in the subjunctive; el 
with av forming edv, av (a), or r\v. (See § 207, 2.) The 
simple el is used with the indicative and optative. 

The same adverb av is used in the apodosis with the 
optative, and with the secondary tenses of the indicative 
in the construction of § 222. 

3. The negative adverb of the protasis is regularly prj 9 

that of the apodosis is ov. 

When ov stands in a protasis, it always belongs to some particular 
word (as in ov iroWoi, few, ov cf)r)pi, to deny), and not to the prot- 
asis as a whole ; as lav re av Ka\ "Avvtos ov (frrjre lav T€ (^re, both 
if you and Anytus deny it and if you admit it. 

Classification of Conditional Sentences. 

§ 220. The supposition contained in a protasis may be 

either particular or general. A particular supposition refers to 

a definite act (or a definite series of acts) occurring at some 

definite time ; as if he (now) has this, he will give it ; if he had 

8 



170 SYNTAX. [§ 220. 

it, he gave it ; if he shall receive it (or if he receives it), he will 
give it ; if he should receive it, he would give it A general sup- 
position refers to any one of a class of acts, which may occur 
(or may have occurred) at any time ; as if ever he receives any- 
thing, he (always) gives it ; if ever he received anything, he {al- 
ways) gave it. 

In all present and past conditions, the Greek makes an important 
distinction in construction between these two classes; in future con- 
ditions it makes no distinction. 

I. Particular Suppositions* 

In particular suppositions the protasis may refer (a) to the 
present or past, or (b) to the future. The Greek has four forms 
of conditional sentences of this class : — 

(a.) 1. We may simp>ly state a present or past condition, im- 
plying nothing as to its fulfilment ; as if he is (now) doing this, 
el tovto 7rpd<T(T€i; — if he was doing it, el e np a ar&e; — if he did 
it, el en page; — if he has (already) done it, el iriirpax^ The 
apodosis here expresses simply what is (was or will be) the re- 
sult of the fulfilment of the condition. Thus we may say : — 

Et 7rpd(j(r€i tovto, KaXcbs ex €l i if ^ e ^ s doing this, it is well,' el 
7r pa a- a et tovto, rjfjLapTrjKeu, if he is doing this, he has erred; el irpda-- 
crei TOVTO, kcl\<os ef-ei, if he is doing this, it will be well. Et err page 
tovto, KaXois e'xei (elx^v, eo~x€v, or egei), if he did this, it is (was or 
will be) well. So with the other tenses of the indicative. (See § 221.) 

So in Latin: Si hoc facit, bene est; Si hoc fecit, bene erit. 

(a.) 2. We may state a present or past condition so as to 
imply that it is not or was not fulfilled ; as if he were (now) 
doing this, el tovto ewpacra-e ; — if he had done this, el tqvto 
en page (both implying the opposite). The apodosis here 
expresses what would be (or would have been) the result, if the 
condition were (or had been) fulfilled. The adverb av in the 
apodosis distinguishes these forms from otherwise similar forms 
under (a) 1. Thus we may say : — 

Et eizpacrve tovto, koXcds av eix^v, if he were (noid) doing this, it 
xcould be well; el eirpage tovto, koXcos av ecrx €V * if he had done this, 
it would have been well. (See § 222.) 

In Latin: Si hoc facer et ) bene esset ; Si hoc fecisset, bene fuisset. . 

(b.) We may state a future condition in Greek (as in Eng- 
lish) in either of two ways. 



§ 220.] THE MOODS. 171 

1. We may say if he shall do this, lav irpdaa-rj (or irpd^rj) 
tovto (or, still more vividly, et 7rpdi-€i tovto), making a distinct 
supposition of a future case. The apodosis expresses what will 
be the result if the condition shall be fulfilled. Thus we may 
say : — 

'Eai> it pdo- an (or 7r pd£rj) tovto, koXcos e£ei, if he shall do this, it 
will be well (sometimes a it pdgei tovto). (See § 223.) 

In Latin : Si hoc faciet (or si hoc fecerit), bene erit ; sometimes 
Si hoc faciat. 

(b.) 2. We may also say if he should do this, et irpda-o-oi (or 
irpdgeie) tovto, still supposing a case in the future, but less 
distinctly and vividly than before. The apodosis corresponds 
in form, and expresses what woidd be the result if the condi- 
tion should be fulfilled. Thus we can say : — 

Ei it pdo- o-oi (or 7r p d £ e i e) tovto, Kakcos av c^oi, if he should do 
this, it would be well. (See § 224.) 

In Latin: Si hoc faciat, bene sit. 

II. General Suppositions. 

In general suppositions there are two classes, one (a) refer- 
ring to indefinite time represented in English as present, the 
other (b) referring to the past : — 

(a.) We may refer indefinitely to any one of a class of acts 
liable to occur at the present time ; as if (ever) any one steals, 
idv tis K\e7TT7j; — if (ever) any one does such a thing, idv tis 
w pdo- a rj toiovtov ti (not if any one is now stealing or noiv doing). 
The apodosis here must contain a verb of present time, express- 
ing a customary or repeated action. Thus we may say : — 

'*Edv tis kXctttv, KokdfcTcu, if any one steals, he is (always) pun- 
ished : idv tis 7T pdo- cry (or Trpd^y) toiovtov ti, xak€7raivofi€V avrS, 
if ever any one does such a thing, we are (always) angry with him. 
(See § 225.) 

(b.) We may refer in the same way to any one of a class of 
acts in the past; as if (ever) any one stole, ci tis k\€tttol) — if 
(ever) any one did such a thing, ci tis irpdo-o-oi (or 7rpa£eie 
toiovtov ti. The apodosis expresses a customary or repeated 
action in past time. Thus we may say : — 

Et tis k\€tttoi, €Ko\d£eTo } if (ever) any one stole, he was (always) 
punished / ft tis tt pda o* o t (or it pd£c ie) toiovtov ti, i^aK^iraivopcv 



172 SYNTAX. [§ 221. 

at™, if (ever) any one did such a thing, we were (always) angry with 
him. (See § 225.) 

Although the Latin sometimes agrees with the Greek in distinguishing 
general conditions from ordinary present and past conditions, using si 
faciat and si faceret like eav irpcLaan and el 7rpacrcroi above, it yet com- 
monly agrees with the English in not recognizing the distinction, and uses 
the indicative alike in both classes. 

Particular Suppositions. 

(a.) Present and Past Conditions. 

§ 221. When the protasis simply states a present or 
past condition, implying nothing as to its fulfilment, it 
takes the indicative with el. Any form of the verb may 
stand in the apodosis. E. g. 

Et 6eoi ti o p co d iv alo~xpbv, ovk ela\v 6eol, if the Gods do anything 
disgraceful,, there are no Gods. Eur. Ei eyco Qaldpov ay von, kol 
cfiavTov €mXeXncrp.ai • dXXd yap ovberepd iari tovt<qv, if I do not know 
Phaedrus, I have forgotten myself; but neither of these is so. "El 6eov 
rjv, ovk rjv alo-xpoKepdrjs, if he was the son of a God, he was not avari- 
cious. 'AXX' el boKcl gol, rrXecofxev, but if it pleases you, let us sail. 
KdiarjT a7ro\o[}jLrjp, EavBiav el firj <fi t X a> , may I die most wretchedly, 
if I do not love Xanthias. 

Note. Even the future indicative can stand in a protasis of this 
class if it expresses merely a present intention or necessity that some- 
thing shall be done; as alpe 7rXrJKTpov, el jbta^et, raise your spur, if 
you are going to fight. Arist. Here ei peXXeis fidx^o-Bai would be 
the more common expression in prose. It is important to notice that 
a future of this kind could not be changed to the subjunctive, like 
the ordinary future in protasis (§ 223, N. 1). 

§ 222. When the protasis states a present or past con- 
dition, implying that it is not or was not fulfilled, the sec- 
ondary tenses of the indicative are used in both protasis 
and apodosis. The apodosis takes the adverb av. 

The imperfect here refers to present time or to a con- 
tinned or repeated action in past time, the aorist to an 
action simply occurring in past time, and the (rare) plu- 
perfect to an action finished in past or present time. E. g. 

Tavra ovk av ebvvavr o noielvj el fir) diairrj fierpia 6^p»j/TO, 



§ 223.] THE MOODS. 173 

they would not be able to do this (as they do), if they did not lead an 
abstemious life, Et rjo'av avdpes ayaBoi, coy av $779, ovk av ttotc 
ravra eiraaxov, if they had been good men, as you say. they would 
never have suffered these things (referring to several cases). Kai 'la-cos 
av an e davov, el fir) r) dp)(r) KareXv On, and perhaps I should have 
perished, if the government had not been put down. Tovto el aneKpL- 
V<0, Uavcos av TJdrj e fie pa Or] ktj (§ 122, 2), if you had answered (his, 
I should already have learned enough (which now I have not done). 
"El fir) vfiels fjXO ere, e 7r o p evo fxe 6 a av en\ tov fiao-iXea, if you 
had not come (Aor.), we should now be on our way (Imp.) to the King. 

Note 1. Sometimes av is omitted in the apodosis, as in English 
we may say it had been for it would have been, or in Latin aequius 
fuerat for aequius fuisset ; as KaXbv rjv aura>, el ovk eyevvrjSrjv 6 
avSpconos eKelvos, it had been good for that man, if he had not been 
born. K T. 

Note 2. The imperfects edei, XPV V or *XPV V > *%l v i an d oth- 
ers denoting necessity, propriety, obligation, possibility, and the like, are 
often used with the infinitive to form an apodosis implying the non- 
fulfilment of a condition. *kv is not used here, as these phrases sim- 
ply express in other words what is usually expressed by the indicative 
with av. Thus ebei o~e tovtov cj)iXelv, you ought to love him (but 
do not), or you ought to have loved him (but did not), is equivalent to 
you would love him, or would have loved him (ecfriXeis av tovtov), if you 
did your duty (to. biovra). So e$-r)v o~oi tovto iroirjaai, you might 
have done this; clkos rjv ae tovto 7roir)o*ai, you would properly have 
done this. The real apodosis is here always in the infinitive. 

When the present infinitive is used, the construction refers to the 
present or to continued or repeated action in the past; when the 
aorist is used, it refers to the past. 

Note 3. In Homer the imperfect indicative in this class of sen- 
tences (§ 222) always refers to the past. We occasionally find a 
present optative in Homer in the sense in which Attic writers use 
the imperfect ; and in a few passages even the aorist optative with *e 
in the place of the aorist indicative (see II. V. 311 and 388). 

(b.) Future Conditions. 

§ 223. When a supposed future case is stated distinctly 
and vividly (as in English, if I shall go, or if I go), the 
protasis takes the subjunctive with lav (Epic el ice). The 
apodosis takes the future indicative or some other future 
form. E. g. 



174 SYNTAX. [§ 224. 

Et aev Kev MeveXaov 'AXe^ai^po? kcltcltt e(f)vrj, qvtos eVet^* *EXe- 
vrjv exerco kcu KTT]fiara irdvra, if Alexander shall slay Menelaus, then let 
him have Helen and all the goods himself. II. *Xv tls dv6 lo-rrjrai, 
TrcLpacrofxeSa xeipoucr&u, if any one shall stand opposed to us, we shall 
try to overcome him. 'Eaz/ ovv Ins vvv, irore ecret oucoi ; if therefore 
you go now, when will you be at home f 

The older English forms if he shall go and if he go express the force 
of the Greek subjunctive exactly ; but the ordinary modern English 
uses if he goes even when the time is clearly future. 

Note 1. The future indicative with el is very often used for the 
subjunctive in conditions of this class, as a still more vivid form of 
expression ; as el p,r) kclB e %e is yk&craav, eorat aoi Kaicd, if you do 
not (shall not) restrain your tongue, you will have trouble. This com- 
mon use of the future, in which it is merely a more vivid form than 
the subjunctive, must not be confounded with that of § 221, Note. 

Note 2. In Homer el (without av or ice) is often used with the 
subjunctive, apparently in the same sense as et Ke or rjv. The same 
use of et for edv is occasionally found even in Attic poetry. 

For the Homeric subjunctive with *e in apodosis, see § 255, Note. 

§ 224, When a supposed future case is stated in a less 
distinct and vivid form (as in English, if ,1 should go), the 
protasis takes the optative with el, and the apodosis takes 
the optative with av. E. g. 

Elys (popnTos ovk av, el tt pdv cr o is kciXcos, you would not been- 
durable, if you should be in prosperity. Ov noWrj av aXoyla e"in, el 
(fyoftolTo rbv Odvarov 6 toiovtos ; would it not be great senselessness, 
if such a man should fear death? oIkos S' avrbs, el (f)6oyyrjv \dj3oi, 
aafao-Tar av \e%eiev, but the house itself if it should find a voice, 
would speak most plainly. 

The future optative cannot be used in protasis or apodosis (§ 202, 4). 

Note. *Av is very rarely omitted in an apodosis of this kind, and 
most examples occur in Homer. But av is sometimes omitted in the 
Attic poets after such expressions as ovk ecrB' onus and ovk 
eo-Tiv qo-tis (see Aesch. Prom. 292, Eur. Ale. 52). 

General Suppositions. 

§ 225. In general suppositions, the protasis refers in- 
definitely to any one of a series of acts, and the apodosis 
expresses a customary or repeated action or a general truth. 



§ 226.] THE MOODS. 175 

Here the protasis takes the subjunctive with lav after 
primary tenses, and the optative with el after secondary- 
tenses. The apodosis may have the present or imperfect in- 
dicative, or any other form which implies repetition. E. g. 

*Hi> iyyvs ZXOrj BdvaTos, ovdcls ftovXcr at 6vr)o~K€iv, if death comes 
near, no one is (ever) willing to die. "Anas \6yos, av any tcl npaypa- 
ra, fidraLov tl (ftaiperai kol kcvov, all speech, if deeds are wanting, 
appears a vain and empty thing. Et Tivas Sopvfiovfievovs alcr Bo ito, 
Karao-ftevvvvai ttjv Tapaxty e'firetparo, if he saw any making a dis- 
turbance (or whenever he saw, &c), he (always) tried to quell the disor- 
der. Et tis avTeiTToi, €v6vs t e 6 v x] k e i , if any one refused, he was 
immediately put to death, 

The gnomic aorist (§ 205, 2), which is a primary tense (§ 201), can 
always be used in the apodosis with the subjunctive depending on it; 
as rjv tis 7rapaj3aivr]y fyfAiav avrols iiri 6 e crav, if any one trans- 
gresses, they impose a penalty on him. 

Here, as in ordinary protasis (§ 223, N. 2), ei is sometimes used 
with the subjunctive for idv or et *e. 

Note 1. The indicative is occasionally used in the place of the 
subjunctive or optative in general suppositions, that is, these sen- 
tences follow the construction of ordinary present and past supposi- 
tions (§ 221), as in Latin and English; as et tis dvo rj ko\ nXclovs 
tis f)p,€pas XoytfeTat, fidraios eVnv, if any one counts on two or 
even more days, he is a fool. See § 233, N. 1. 

Note 2. General suppositions referring to the future are not dis- 
tinguished from particular, and are included under § 223 and § 224. 

Peculiar Forms of Conditional Sentences. 

Ellipsis and Substitution. 

§ 226. 1- The protasis sometimes is not expressed in its 
regular form with et or idv, but is contained in a participle or in 
some other part of the sentence. When a participle represents 
the protasis, its tense is always that in which the verb itself 
would have stood in the indicative, subjunctive, or optative. 
The present (as usual) includes the imperfect. E. g. 

2v Se kXvoov eto-et Td\a, but you will soon know, if you listen 
(=. iav kKvtjs). Toiavrd tclv yvvaiijl o~vvvaia>v e\ois, such things 
would you have to endure if you should dwell among women (i. e. et avv- 
vaiois). 'HmoTrjo-ev av tis aKovaas, any one would have disbelieved 



176 SYNTAX. [§ 226. 

such a thing if he had heard it (L e. el fJKovo-ev). 'AwoXovfiai firj pa- 
Bav, I shall be ruined unless I learn (idv firj fidOco). So with all the 
other forms of protasis. 

Aid ye fj pas avrov s irdXai av diro\a>\eiTe, if it had depended on 
yourselves, you would long ago have been ruined. Ovt<d yap ovkctl 
tov ^oinov 7rdo-xoifjL€v av Kaiccos, for in that case we should no longer 
suffer evil. 

2. The protasis is often altogether omitted, leaving the opta- 
tive or indicative with av alone as an apodosis. Here some 
indefinite protasis is implied, like if he pleased, if he should try, 
if he could, <fec. E. g. 

"lacos av tis cttit i fxr) a e le tois elprjfjievois, perhaps some one might 
(if he wished) find fault with what has been said. 'Hdeoos d* av eycoy 
epoifirjv AeTrTtvnv, and I would gladly ask Leptines (if I could). Ov 
yap rjv o tl av eiroielTe, for there ivas nothing which you could have 
done (if you had tried). So /3ov\oLfinv av (velim), / should ivish (in 
some future case) ; e(3ov\6p.nv av (vellem), i" should now wish (on some 
condition not fulfilled). 

The optative with av, used in this way, may express a mild com- 
mand, and is sometimes a mere future; as x^pols av e'lcrco, you 
may go in; kXvois av rjbn, hear now ; ovk av fie 6 e i pnv tov Bpovov, 
I will not give up the throne (lit. / would not give it up on any con- 
dition). 

3. The apodosis may be expressed by an infinitive or par- 
ticiple whenever the construction of the sentence requires it, 
each tense representing its own tenses of the indicative or 
optative. (See § 203, with Note 1.) If the finite verb in the 
apodosis wonld have taken civ, this particle is nsed with the 
infinitive or participle. E. g. 

'Hyou/xat, el tovto iroieiTe, ndvra Ka\cos e^eiv, I believe that, if you 
are doing this, all is well; rjyovfjLa^ eav tovto 7roirjTe> irdvra koXcds 
e^eiv, I believe that, if you shall do this, all will be well. For exam- 
ples of the infinitive and participle with av, see § 211. 

Note. Sometimes the apodosis is merely implied in the context, 
and in such cases el or idv is often to be translated supposing that or 
in case that, as ukovo-ov teal ifj.ov, idv coi Tavra Boktj, hear me also, 
in case the same shall please you (i. e. that then you may assent to it) ; ol 
<? coKTeipov, el dXobcroti/ro, and others pitied them, in case they should 
be captured (i. e. thinking what they would suffer if they should be cap- 
tured). See §248. So upos ttjv irokiv, el en t/3 on 6 olev, ex^povv. 



§229.] THE MOODS. 177 

they marched towards the city, in case they (the citizens') should rush out 
(i. e. to meet them if they should rush out). On this principle we must 
explain at Kev noos fiovXerai, II. I. 66 ; at k edeXrjo-da, Od. IIL 92 ; 

. and similar passages. 

Mixed Constructions. — Al in Apodosis* 

§ 227. 1. The protasis and apodosis sometimes belong to 
different forms. This happens especially when an indicative 
with d in the protasis is followed by an optative with av (§ 226) 
in the apodosis, the latter having another protasis implied. E. g. 

Ei ovroi opflcos an e crrrj O" av, vfxels av ov xpeoov a px° LT 6 > if 
these had a right to secede, you could not possibly hold your power right- 
fully. Ei vvv ye dv o~tv x<> v p.ev, irons rdvavrC av Trpdrrovres ov 
o~<d£o l fied* av; if we are now unfortunate, how could ice help being 
saved by doing the opposite ? 

Note. Sometimes a protasis contains the adverb av, belonging not 
to el, but to the verb. Here the verb is also an apodosis at the same 
time ; as €i fir) iroir)o~aLT* av tovto, if (it is true that) you would not 
do this (i. e. if it should be necessary), which differs entirely from ei fir) 
Trotrjaaire tovto, if you should not do this. 

2. The apodosis is sometimes introduced by the conjunction 
Se, which cannot be translated in English. E. g. 

Ei de Ke fir) daxoaLv, eyed de Kev avros eXco/xai, but if they do not 
give her up, then I will take her myself. 

El after Verbs of Wondering, &c. 

§ 228. Some verbs expressing wonder, contentment, disap- 
pointment, indignation, <fec. take a protasis with *i where a 
causal sentence would seem more natural. E. g. 

Qavudfa & eycoye el firjbels vacov firjT evQvpevrai firjT 6pyi£eTai, and 
I wonder that no one of you is either concerned or angry (lit. if no one 
of you is, &c, / wonder). See also § 248. 

Such verbs are especially Oavudfa, alcrxvvofiai, dyanded^ and dyava- 
KTeco. They sometimes take otl, because, and a causal sentence (§ 250). 

III. KELATIYE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 

§ 229, Eelative sentences include all temporal clauses 
except those introduced by irplv, or other word meaning 

until. 

8* 



178 SYNTAX. [§ 230. 

The antecedent of a relative is either definite or indefi- 
nite. It is definite when the relative refers to a definite 
person or thing, or to some definite time, place, or manner ; 
it is indefinite when no such definite person, thing, time, 
place, or manner is referred to. Both definite and indefi- 
nite antecedents may be either expressed or understood. 
Kg. 

{Definite.) Tavra a €x<o opas, you see these tilings which I have ; or 
a e^co Spas. "Ore eftovXero rjXQev, (once) ichen he wished, he came. 

(Indefinite.) liavra a av fiovXcovrcu etjovcriv, they will have every- 
thing which they may want; or a av fiovXcovTai egovaiv, they will have 
whatever they may want. "Orav UXOg, tovto 7r/>a|a>, when he shall come 
(or when he comes), I will do this. "Ore fiovXoiTo, tovto €7rpao~a€v, 
whenever he wished, he (always) did this. 

Definite Antecedent, 

§ 230. A relative with a definite antecedent has no 

effect on the mood of the following verb ; it therefore takes 

the indicative (with ov for its negative), unless the general 

sense requires some other construction. E. g. 

Tiff %o~@ 6 x&P * ^7 r ' * p 4 P^fjKafiev ; i. e. the place in which, &c. 
Eo)9 €o~t\ Kaipbs, avTiXafieoSe t&v 7rpayfxa.Tcov, (now) while there is an 
opportunity, &c. 

Indefinite Antecedent. — Conditional Relative. 

§ 231. A relative clause with an indefinite antecedent 
has a conditional force and is often called a protasis, the 
antecedent clause being called the apodosis. Such a rela- 
tive is called a conditional relative. The negative parti- 
cle is yj\. 

iS~OTE. Relative vrords (like et, if) take av before the subjunctive. 
(See § 207, 2.) With 6t€, ottotc, cVei, and eVeiS^, av forms oTav, 
oTTOTav. inav or €ttt)v (Ionic incdv). and inabav. In Homer we gen- 
erally find OT€ K€, &C. 

§ 232. The conditional relative sentence h&s four forms 
in particular suppositions, corresponding to those of ordi- 
nary protasis. (§§ 221 - 224) 



§233.] THE MOODS. 179 

1. Present or past condition simply stated (§ 221). E. g. 

"O rt /3ovXerat Saxra), / will give him whatever he (now) wishes 
(like et ti /3ouXerat, dwo-co, if he (now) wishes anything, I will give it. 
*A fir) old a, ovde o"o/iai clbevai, what I do not know, I do not even 
think I know (like et riva fir) olda, if there are any things which I do 
not know). 

2. Present or past condition stated so as to imply that 
the condition is not or was not fulfilled {supposition con- 
trary to fact, § 222). E. g. 

*A fir) e (3ov\eTo dovvai, ovk av cScqkcv, he would not have given 
what he had not ivished to give (like et Tiva fir) c/SovXcto dovvai, ovk av 
cdcoKev, if he had not wished to give certain things, he would not have 
given them). Ovk av enex^ipovfiev irpdiTciv a fir) r)ir tor dfi€0 a, we 
should not (then) be undertaking to do (as we now are) things which we 
did not understand (like et nva fir) rjmordfieda, if there were any things 
which we did not know, the whole belonging to a supposition not real- 
ized). So 6 v yrjpas erer/ttei>, Odyss. I. 217. 

This case occurs less frequently than the others. 

3. Future condition in the more vivid form (§ 223). E. g. 
*0 rt av ftovXrjTai, dao-co, / will give him whatever he may wish 

(like idv ti fiovXrjTai, Saxra>, if he shall wish anything, I will give it). 
"Orav fir) a- 6 even, ircnavcrofiai, when I (shall) have no more strength, 
I shall cease. 'AXo^ou? Ka\ pfjiria reKva a^ofiev iv vrjcao-iv, ctttjv 
irroXUOpov eXcofiev, we will carry them as soon as we shall take the 
city. Horn. 

The future indicative cannot generally be substituted for the sub- 
junctive here, as it can in ordinary protasis (§ 223, N. 1). 

4. Future condition in the less vivid form (§ 224). E. g. 
*0 rt fiovXoiTo, dolnv av, I should give him whatever he might 

wish (like et ti fiovXoiTo, dolrjv av, if he should wish anything, I should 
give it). Tleiv&v (j)dyoi av ottotc ftovXoiTo, if he were hungry , he 
would eat whenever he might wish (like et Trore /HovXoito, if he should 
ever wish). 

§ 233. The conditional relative sentence has the same 
forms in general suppositions as ordinary protasis (§ 225), 
taking the subjunctive after primary tenses, and the opta- 
tive after secondary tenses. E. g. 

"O rt av ftovXrjTai 5tSo)/zt, / (always) give him whatever he wants 
(like idv ti fiovXrjTai, if he ever wants anything). "O ti PovXoito 



180 SYNTAX. [§ 234. 

cBl&ovv, I (always) gave him whatever he wanted (like el n fiovXoiro). 
^vptiaxelv rovrois efleXovaiv anavres, ov s av 6 p co a i 7rapeo-Kevao~p,e- 
vovs, all wish to be allies of those whom they see prepared. 'HvIk' av 
o'lkol y evcovrai, dpcbaiv ovk dvdcrxera, when they get ho?ne, they do 
things unbearable. Ovs p.ev 'Idoi evraKrcos lovras, rives re elev rjpara, 
Koi err el ttvOolto €7T]]V€L, he (always) asked those whom he saw (at 
any time) inarching in good order, who they were ; and when lie learned, 
he praised them. 'Eireidrj de dvoix$ ] ein, elo-rjeip,ev napa rbv 2a>- 
Kpdrn, and (each morning) when the prison was opened, we went in to 
Socrates. 

Note 1. The indicative sometimes takes the place of the subjunc- 
tive or optative here, as in the general suppositions of ordinary prot- 
asis (see § 225, X. 1). This occurs especially in poetry after the 
indefinite relative ocrrcs, which itself expresses the same idea of 
indefiniteness which 6s with the subjunctive or optative usually ex- 
presses ; as o <r r i s p.r] roav dpicrrcov airrerai fiovXevixdrwv, KaKiaros 
ejvai doKei, whoever does not cling to the best counsels, seems to be most 
base. Soph. Antig. 178. (Here bs fir) aTrrnrai would be the common 
expression.) Such examples belong under § 232. 1. 

Note 2. Homeric similes sometimes have cos, &s re, as ore, as 
6s (seldom wj tee, &c), with the subjunctive, where we should expect 
the present indicative, which is sometimes used; as <a s yvvrj kXgu- 
rj a- 1, . . . . &s 'Odvo-evs, &c., as a wife weeps, so did Ulysses, &c. 
Odyss. VIII. 523. See Odyss. V. 328; II. X. 5; XL 67. 

§ 234. Conditional relative sentences have most of the 
peculiarities and irregularities of ordinary protasis. Thus, the 
protasis and apodosis may have different forms (§ 227, 1); the 
simple relative is sometimes found in poetry with the subjunc- 
tive (like el for idv or el *e, § 223, N. 2) ; the relative clause 
may depend on an infinitive, participle, or other construction 
(§ 226, 3) ; and the conjunction he may connect the relative 
clause to a following antecedent clause (§ 227, 2). 

Assimilation in Conditional Relative Clauses* 

§ 285. When a conditional relative clause referring to the 
future depends on a subjunctive or optative referring to the 
future, it regularly takes by assimilation the same mood with 
its leading verb. E. g. 

*Edv rives ot av d vv covrai rovro it o t a> a - i , KaXcos e^ei, if any who 
shall be able do this, it will be well ; el rives ot dvvaivro rovro 



§ 238.] THE MOODS. 181 

iroio'iev, KdXcos av e^ot, if any who should be able should do this, it 
would be well. E We iravres oi dvvaivro tovto 7roioiev, that all 
who may be able would do this. (Here the optative iroiolev, § 251, 1, 
makes oi bvvaivro preferable to ol av dvvvvrai, which would express 
the same idea). 

Note. A secondary tense of the indicative may assimilate a de- 
pendent conditional relative clause in the same way. 

Kelative Clauses expressing Purpose, Result, or Cause. 

§ 236. The relative is used with the future indicative 
to express a purpose or object. E. g. 

Upecrfieiav neuTreiv fjr is ravr e pel kol nape arai rots TTpayp.aoriv, 
to send an embassy to say this, and to be present at the transactions. Ov 
yap eo-ri fxoi xprjuara, ott 6 6 ev e kt ia co, for I have no money to pay 
the fine with. 

The antecedent here may be definite or indefinite ; but the nega- 
tive particle is always \x.r\, as in final clauses". 

Note 1. In Homer, the subjunctive (with k£ joined to the rela- 
tive) is commonly found in this construction after primary tenses, and 
the optative (without *e) after secondary tenses. The optative is 
sometimes found even in Attic prose, usually depending on another 
optative. 

Note 2. 'E0' <S or e<j) y wre, on condition that, which commonly 
takes the infinitive (§ 267), sometimes takes the future indicative ; as 
€7r\ tovtco v7ze^LOTap.ai, e <j> core vif ovbevbs vpecov ap £o fiai, I with- 
draw on this condition, that I shall be ruled by none of you. Hdt. 

Note 3. In this construction the future indicative generally re- 
mains unchanged, even after past tenses. 

§ 237. "flare (sometimes ©9), so that, which generally 
takes the infinitive (§ 266), is sometimes followed by the 
indicative. E. g. 

Ovtcos dyvcouovcos e^ere, coo-re eXn i£ere avra XPW™ yevrjo'eo'Oai ; 
are you so senseless that you expect them to become good f 

Note. A simple relative sentence with 8s or oo-ns sometimes de- 
notes a result, where {bare would be expected; as rls ovrcos evrjOns 
eoTLV, ootls dyvoel; &c, who is so simple as not to know f &c. 

§ 238. The relative is sometimes equivalent to on, be- 
cause, and a personal or demonstrative. The verb is in the 
indicative, as in ordinary causal sentences (§ 250). E. g. 



182 SYNTAX. [§ 239. 

Qavpaarbv 7roie?s, 6 s fjfuv ovdev d Id co s, you do a strange thing in 
giving us nothing (like otl crv ovdev didcos)> Aogas dfiaOqs elvai os 
. . . . e/ce'Xeve, having seemed unleaimed, because he commanded, &c. 

Temporal Particles signifying Until and Before that* 

§ 239. 1. When eoos, ecrre, a%pi, ^XPh an( ^ ocfipa, 
until, refer to a definite point of past time, they take the 
indicative. E. g. 

Nr/xov TrdXiv, e co s eirrj\6ov els irorapov, I swam on again, until I 
came into a river. Horn. Tavra enoiovv, fxe^pi o~kotos eyevero, 
this they did until darkness came on. 

2. These particles follow the construction of conditional 
relatives in the last three forms of particular suppositions 
and in general suppositions. E. g. 

y E7ritrx €S i *°" T ' av KaL Ta ^onra it pocr p-dQn s, wait until you (shall) 
learn the rest besides (§ 232, 3). Ei7roi/u' av . . . . ecos it a par eivatfii 
rovrov, I would tell him, &c, until I put him to the torture (§ 232, 4). 
'Hbecos av rovrco en dieXeyopnv, ecos avrco . . . . cltt edcoica, I should 
(in that case) gladly have continued to talk with him until I had given 
him back, &c. (§ 232, 2). *A S' av dcrvvraKTa fj, dvdyicn Tavra del 
TTpdyjiara napexeiv, ecos av \copav \d(3rj, whatever things are in dis- 
order, these must always make trouble until they are put in order (§ 233). 
Uepiepttvofiev eKao-rore, ecos avoi^O e in to deapcorrjpiov, we waited each 
day until the prison was opened (§ 233). 

Note. The omission of av after these particles and npiv, when 
the verb is in the subjunctive, is more common than it is after el or 
ordinary relatives (§ 223, N". 2), occurring sometimes in Attic prose; 
as fiexpi tt\ovs yevnrai 1 Thuc. I. 137. 

§ 240. 1. When nrplu^ "before, before that, until, is not 
followed by the infinitive, it takes the indicative, subjunc- 
tive, or optative, like ecos (§ 239). E. g. 

Ovk rjv aKe^np! ovdev, irpiv y eyco acpiaiv edei£a, &C, there was 
no relief, until I showed them, &c. Ot> XPV f 16 evOevhe dneXBelv, np\v 
av d to bUnv, I must not leave this place until he is punished. Ovk av 
elbeins np\v it e 1 prj 6 e in s, you would not know until you had (shoidd 
have) tasted it. 'E^pr/v prj irporepov crvpfiovheveiv, irplv ijfids edl- 
da£av, &c, they ought not to have given advice until they had in- 
structed us, &c. 'Opcocri rovs irpecrftvTepovs ov npoaBev dmovras, Ttpiv 



§241.] THE MOODS. 183 

&v a (j> too- iv oi apxovres, they see that the elders never go away until 
the authorities dismiss them. OvdafioOcv dtfiieo-avi rrp\v irapaOelcv 
avroh aptarov, they dismissed them from no place before they had set a 
meal before them. 

2. Upiu regularly takes the subjunctive and optative (when 
they are allowed) only if the leading verb is negative or inter- 
rogative with a negative implied ; very seldom if that is affirm- 
ative. It takes the indicative after both negative and affirm- 
ative sentences, but chiefly 'after negatives. 

Otherwise rrplv takes the infinitive (§ 274). In Homer, the 
infinitive is the form regularly used after irplv, without regard 
to the leading sentences. 

Note. Up\v fj, jrpore pov fj (priusquam), and irpo<r6cv fj 

may be used in the same constructions as rrpiv itself. 

IY. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 
General Principles. 

§ 241. 1. A direct quotation gives the exact words of 
the original speaker or writer. In an indirect quotation 
the original words conform to the construction of the sen- 
tence in which they are quoted. 

Thus the words ravra $ov\op.ai may be quoted either directly, 
X/yet ris " ravra ftovXo ixai" ; or indirectly, Xeyei ris ori ravra 
ftovXerai or Xe'yei ris ravra ftovXecrOai, some one says that he ivishes 
for this. 

"Or i, that, occasionally precedes even direct quotations; as in Anab. 
I. 6, 8. 

2. Indirect quotations may be introduced by ore or &>?, 
that, or by the infinitive (as in the example given above) ; 
sometimes also by the participle. 

3. Indirect questions follow the same rule as indirect 
quotations, in regard to their moods and tenses. 

Note. The term indirect discourse applies to all clauses (even sin- 
gle clauses in a sentence of different construction) which indirectly 
express the words or thought of any person, even past thoughts of 
the speaker himself. 



184 SYNTAX. [§ 242. 

§ 242. 1. Indirect quotations after ore and eo? and 

indirect questions follow this general rule : — 

After primary tenses, each verb retains both the mood and 
the tense of the direct discourse. After secondary tenses, 
each indicative or subjunctive of the direct discourse may 
be either changed to the same tense of the optative or 
retained in its original mood and tense. But all secondary 
tenses of the indicative implying non-fulfilment of a con- 
dition (§ 222) and all optatives are retained unchanged. 

The imperfect and pluperfect, having no tenses in the optative, 
remain unchanged in all kinds of sentences. The aorist indicative 
likewise remains unchanged when it belongs to a dependent clause of 
the direct discourse (§ 247), but otherwise it is changed like the 
primary tenses (§ 243). 

2. When the quotation depends on a verb which takes 
the infinitive or participle, its leading verb is changed to 
the corresponding tense of the infinitive or participle (av 
being retained when there is one), and the dependent 
verbs follow the preceding rule. 

3. Av is never omitted with the indicative or optative 

in indirect discourse, if it was used in the direct form ; but 

av belonging to a relative word or particle in the direct 

form is regularly dropped when the subjunctive is changed 

to the optative in indirect discourse. 

*Av is never added in the indirect discourse when it was not used 
in the direct form. 

4. The negative particle of the direct discourse is reg- 
ularly retained in the indirect form. But the infinitive 
and participle occasionally have /itj where ov would be 
used in direct discourse. 

Simple Sentences in indirect Discourse. 

Indicative and Optative after 6ti and «s, and in Indirect Questions. 

§ 243. When the direct form is an indicative (without 
av), the principle of § 242 gives the following rule for in- 



§ 243.] THE MOODS. 185 

direct quotations after ore or to? and for indirect ques- 
tions : — 

After primary tenses the verb retains both its mood and 
tense. After secondary tenses it is either changed to the 
same tense of the optative or retained in the original mood 
and tense. E. g. 

Atyei otl y pd([) e t, he says that he is writing ; Xeyet otl e y p a(f> e v, 
he says that he was writing; Xe'yet on ey payjsev, he says that he 
wrote; Xe£et on yeyp a (f)€v, he will say that he has written. 'Epcora 
tl (3ov\opt cil, he asks what they want ; dyvoco tl 7roi^(rov(riv 9 1 
do not know what they will do. 

Elnev on ypd<poi or on ypd(j)€L, he said that he was writing 
(he said ypd<pco). El7T€v on ypdifsoL or on ypd^ei, he said that 
he would write (he said ypdyjsco). Eirrev on y pd\ffeL€v or on eypa- 
yjfcv, he said that he had ivritten (he said €ypa\jsa, I wrote). Einev on 
yeypcKpcos c'ltj or on y€ypa<p€v, he said that he had ivritten (he 
said yeypacpa, I have ivritten). 

(Opt.) 'E7retpa)/i77z/ clvtcd deiKvvvai, on o'lolto /neV civai crotfios, eXn 
6° ou, / tried to show him that he believed himself to be wise, but was not 
so (i. e. otVrat /zez/ .... ecrn & ov). 'YirtnTtDV on avros rd^et 7rpd£ot, 
<PX €TO i hinting that he would himself attend to things there, he departed 
(he said avTos rd/ca irpd^co). "E\€f;av on nepyj/ e i zv o~(f)ds 6 'li>$a)i/ 
ftaaiXevs, Ke^evcov eparav e£ otoi; 6 7rdXe/xoy 6 it;, they said that the 
king of the Indians had sent them, commanding them to ask on what 
account there was the war (they said eire^ev fleets, and the question. 
was €K Tivo? ia-Tiv 6 noXepos ;). "Hpero et ns ipov tin aoefxarepos, 
he asked whether there was any one wiser than I (i. e. ean tls cro^co- 
repos;). 

(Indic.) EXeyci> on iXir L£ov cr li ere kol tt)V ttoXlv e^eiv fioi xdpWi 
they said that they hoped you and the state would be grateful to me. t Hk€ 
8* dyye XXcov rtr cos 'EXdreia icar e i\r}7TTai, some one was come with 
a report that Elatea had been taken (here the perf. opt. might have 
been used). * ArroKpLvapevoL on ir £ fiyjrov o~ l Trpeo-fBeLs, evSvs dnr]X- 
\a£av, having replied that they would send ambassadors, they dismissed 
them at once. 'Hiropow tl ttotc Xeyet, / was uncertain what he meant 
(tl 7Tore Xeyet ;). 'EftovXevovTo tlu clvtov KaTaXe i\jrov cr lv, they 
were considering the question, whom they should leave here. 

Note 1. The imperfect and pluperfect regularly remain unchanged 
in this construction after secondary tenses (§ 242, 1). But occa- 
sionally the present optative represents the imperfect here ; as aireKpL- 
vavro otl ovdels fxdpTvs irapclrj, they replied that there had been no 



186 SYNTAX. [§ 244. 

witness present (ovdels naprjv), where the context makes it clear that 
napeln does not stand for ndpeo-TL. See § 203, N. 1. 

Note 2. In a few cases the Greek changes a present indicative to 
the imperfect in this construction, instead of retaining it or changing 
it to the optative j as ev airopia rjcav, evvoovjievoi. otl enX rats /3ao"tXe- 
(os Ovpcics rj aav, they ivere in despair, considering that they were at the 
King's gates. This is also the English usage. 

Subjunctive or Optative representing the Interrogative Subjunctive* 

§ 244. In indirect questions, after a primary tense, an 
interrogative subjunctive (§ 256) retains its mood and tense; 
after a secondary tense, it may either be changed to the 
same tense of the optative or retained in the subjunctive. 
E. g. 

BoiAevo/xai oncos (re a7rodpa>, I am trying to think how I shall es- 
cape you (ncos ae ajrobpco ;). Ovk old* el Xpvo~dvrq tovtco Sw, I do 
not know whether I shall give them to this Chrysantas. Ovk e^co rt 
et7ra>, / do not know what I shall say (jl ei7ra);), Non habeo quid 
dicam. ^irr^povro el napadolev tx\v ttoXlv, they asked whether they 
should give up the city (irapabebpev rrjv ttoKlv; shall we give up the 
city?). ^Yliropei 6 n xpV (raiTO T( ? npdypari, he was at a loss how to 
deal with the matter (ji Y^crw/zat ;). 'JLfiovkevovro etre KaraKav v a>- 
viv eire tl aXXo x PV °~ COVTal i ^ l€ V were deliberating whether they 
should burn them or dispose of them in some other way. 

In these cases el (never idv) is used for whether, before the subjunc- 
tive as well as the optative. 

Indicative or Optative with &V. 

§ 245. An indicative or optative with av retains its mood 
and tense unchanged in indirect discourse. E. g. 

Ae'yei (or eXeyev) otl tovto av ey evero, he says or (said) that this 
would have happened; eXeyev otl ovto? diKaicos av Odvoi, he said 
that this man would justly die. 

Infinitive and Participle in Indirect Quotations. 

§ 246. When the infinitive or participle is used in 
indirect discourse, its tense represents the tense of the 
finite verb in the direct form to which it corresponds, the 
present and perfect including the imperfect and pluper- 
fect. Each tense with av can represent the corresponding 
tenses of either indicative or optative with av. E. g. 



§247.] THE MOODS. 187 

*Ap p co (tt civ npcxfiafri&Tcu, he pretends that he is ill ; i^iopocrev 
dp pco arelv tovtovi, he took an oath that this man was ill, Kara- 
a x * i v <pT}o-i tovtovs, he says that he detained them. "Ecprj xpW a & 
iavrcp tovs QnfiaLovs €7riK€KTjpvx€vai, he said that the Thebans had 
offered a reward for him. 'EnayyeXkeTai ra dUaia no i tjctciv, he 
promises to do ivhat is right. See examples under § 203, and N. 1. 

*Hyy€i\e tovtovs e p\o pkvov s, he announced that these were com- 
ing (ovtoi cpxovTai) ; ayyeXXet tovtovs eXOovras, he announces that 
these came; dyytXXei tovto y evn o~6 pevov, he announces that this 
will be done; rjyytiX* tovto y evrj a 6 p.evov, he announced that this 
would be done ; rjyyeiXe tovto yeycvvpevov, he announced thai this 
had been done (tovto ycyevnrai). 

See examples of av with infinitive and participle under § 211. 

Note. The infinitive is said to stand in indirect discourse and its 
tenses correspond to those of the finite moods, when it depends on a 
verb implying thought or the expression of thought, and when also the 
thought, as originally conceived, would have been expressed by some 
tense of the indicative (with or without av) or optative (with av), 
which can be transferred without change of tense to the infinitive. 
Thus in fiovXerai iXBelv, he wishes to go, iXOciv represents no form 
of either aorist indicative or aorist optative, but is merely the ordi- 
nary infinitive (§ 202) not in indirect discourse. But in (prjcriv iXOelv, 
he says that he went, iXBelv represents rjXBov of the direct discourse. 

Indirect Quotation of Compound Sentences. 

§ 247. When a compound sentence is indirectly quoted, 
its leading verb follows the rules for simple sentences 
(§§ 243-246). 

After primary tenses the dependent verbs retain the 
same mood and tense. After secondary tenses, all primary 
tenses of the indicative and all subjunctives may either be 
changed to the same tense of the optative or retain the 
mood and tense of the direct form. But dependent second- 
ary tenses of the indicative are kept unchanged in all 
cases. E. g. 

Av vuels \iyrjT€, iroina'CLV ((pno-\) o pr}T alcrxvvrjv prjT dho^lav 
avrco (fiepci, if you shall say so, he says he will do whatever does not 
bring shame or discredit to him. (Here no change is made, except in 
iroiTjo-eiv, § 246.) 

'AireKplvavro on p.avBdvoiev a ovk err i or atvro, he replied, 



188 SYNTAX. [§ 248. 

that they learned ivhat they did not understand (he said fjiavBdvovcnv a 
ovk iiricrravrai, which might have been retained). Et nva (pevyovra 
X r) y\r o t r o , nponyoptvev on cos 7roXe/xta) ^pj)(rotTo, he announced, 
that if he should catch any one running away, he should treat him as an 
enemy (he said, et nva Xr)\j/op.a^ xpqcropu, § 223, 1ST. 1). 'Ei/o/xtfe, 
ocra rrjs iroXecos tz p o X a /3 o t , ndvra ravra fielSalcos e £ e t v, he believed 
that he should hold all those places securely which he should take from the 
city beforehand (per av irpoXdftco, e£a)). 'E&ket fxoi ravrrj ireipacrdai. 
o~co6r)vai, ev6vp.ovp.evcp on, iav pev XdB co, a co6r) cro pai, it seemed 
best to me to try to gain safety in this way, thinking that if I should 
escape notice, I should be saved (here we might have had et XdBoipi, 
acoBrjO-olpnv). "Ecfiaaav rovs avdpas cltto KTCvelv ovs e;^ overt {cop- 
ras, they said that they should kill the men whom they had living (airo- 
Kevovpev ovs e'xofiev, which might have been changed to cmoKreveiv 
ovs e^otei/). ILpodrjXov rjv (rovro) € o~ 6 pevov , et pr) kcoXv cr er e, it 
was plain that this would be so unless you should prevent (rovro carat et 
pr) KooXvo-ere, for which we might have had et fir) KcoXvaoire). "HXm^ov 
rovs 2lkcXovs ravrrj, ovs per e 7T e fiyjsav , d-navrrjcreaBai, they hoped the 
Sikels whom they had sent for would meet them here, 

Note 1. One verb may be changed to the optative while another 
is retained; as brjXcocras on eroipoi elcri pd\ecr6ai, et ns e£epxoiro, 
having shown that they were ready to fight if any one should come forth 
(eroiaoi etVt, idu rt? it-epxnrai). This sometimes causes a great va- 
riety of constructions in the same sentence. 

Note 2. The aorist indicative is not changed to the optative in 
dependent clauses, to avoid confusion with the aorist subjunctive, 
which is regularly so changed. In dependent clauses in which con- 
fusion would be impossible (as in causal sentences), which never have 
a subjunctive), even an aorist indicative may become optative. 

Note 3. A dependent optative of course remains unchanged in 
all indirect discourse. 

§ 248. The principles of § 247 apply also to any de- 
pendent clause (in a sentence of any kind) which expresses 
indirectly the past thoughts of any person, even of the 
speaker himself. 

This applies especially to the following constructions : — 
1. Clauses depending on an infinitive after verbs of wishing, 
commanding, advising, &c, ; as these verbs imply thought, or the 
expression of thought, although the infinitive after them is not in 
indirect discourse (§ 246, Note). 



§ 248.] THE MOODS. 189 

2. Clauses containing a protasis with the apodosis implied in 
the context (§ 226, Note), or with the apodosis expressed in a 
verb like Qavfidfa (§ 228). 

3. Temporal clauses expressing a past intention, especially 
those introduced by cW or irpiv after past tenses. 

4. Even ordinary relative sentences, which would regularly 
take the indicative. 

This affects the construction of course only after past tenses. 
Kg. 

(1.) 'EftovXovro iXSelv, el tovto yevoiTo, they wished to go if this 
should happen. (Here ifiovXovTo iXBelv iav tovto yevrjTai might be 
used, expressing the form, if this shall happen, in which the w^ish 
would be conceived.) 'EiceXevo-ev 6 tl bvvaivT o Xaftovras /x€TaSto>- 
Keiv, he commanded them to take what they could and pursue (he said 
o Tt. av dvvrjoSe, what you can, and therefore we might have had o tl 
av bvvcovrai). UpoeiTrov avTois fxr) vavp.axe1v KopivQlois, rjv p.r) im 
KepKvpav tz \ e o> cr i Ka\ /ie'XXo) tr lv dnofiaiveLv, they instructed them 
not to engage in a sea fight with Corinthians, unless these should be sail- 
ing against Corcyra and should be on the point of landing. (Here the 
direct forms are retained, for which el fir) nXeoiev Ka\ fieXXoiev 
might have been used.) 

(2.) "Qucreipov, el dXa> a- o ivto, they pitied them, in case they should 
be captured (the thought being el aXcoa ovrai, which might have 
been retained). &vXaicas crv jnre fine t, ottcos (frvXaTToiev clvtov, kcu el 
t<*>v dypicov tl (jyavelrj Brjplcov, he sends (sent) guards, to guard him 
and (to be ready) in case any of the savage beasts should appear (the 
thought being iav tl <pavfj). TciXXa, rjv %tl vavpayeiv ol 'AGrjvaioL 
toX firjcrcoo-L, TrapecrKeva^ovTo, they made the other preparations (to be 
ready) in case the Athenians should still venture a naval battle. "Exaipov 
dyancov el tls edo~oi, I rejoiced, being content if any one would let it 
pass (the thought was dyan(o et tls edo-ei). 'ESavfiage eX tls dpyv- 
piov it paTTOLTo, he wondered that any one demanded money ; but in 
the same book (Xen. Mem. I.) we find iOavpa^e & el fir) fyavepbv 
avTois ecrTLv, he wondered that it was not plain. 

(3.) 27rovdas eTroir)o-avTO e&s dirayyeXBeir) to. Ae^eVra els Aaice- 
halpova, they made a truce, (to continue) until what had been said should 
be reported at Sparta (their thought was ecus air ayyeXBfj , which 
might have been retained). Ov yap $r) o-cpeas cnriel 6 debs Trjs clttol- 
Kirjs, irplv br) dnLKcovTaL is avTrjv Ai(3vr)v, i. e. until they should 
come, &c. (where diriKoivTo might have been used). Hdt. 

(4.) Kcu fjTee crrjfia l&eaBaL, o ttl pa ol yapfipoio irdpa UpoiTOLO 



190 SYNTAX. [§ 249. 

<f)€ poiroj he wished to see the token, which he was bringing (as he 
said) from Proetus. Karrjyopeov tcop AlyivnrecDV ra n en o ir) ko lev 
wpodovres rrjv 'EAAa&z, they accused the Aeginetans for what (as they 
said) they had done in betraying Greece. 

For the same principle in causal sentences, see § 250, Note. 

Note. On this principle, final and object clauses with ha, oncos, 
as, /x?7, &c, admit the double construction of indirect discourse, and 
allow either the subjunctive or future indicative (as the case may be) 
to stand unchanged after secondary tenses. (See § 216, 2.) The 
same principle extends to all conditional and conditional relative sen- 
tences depending on final or object clauses, as these too belong to the 
indirect discourse. 

"07rG>s and "o in Indirect Quotations. 

§ 249. 1. In a few cases 6ttg>s is used for as or Sri in indi- 
rect quotations, chiefly in poetry. E. g. 

Tovto pr) poi <f)pd£ y , o7T(o s ovk e I kokos, do not tell me this, that you 
are not base. Soph. 

2. Homer rarely uses 6 (neuter of 6s) for on. E. g. 

Aevaoere yap to ye names, 6 pot. ye pas ep^erai ciWrj, for you all 
see this, that my prize goes another way. Yiyv&VKav 6 ol avros vireipexe 
\elpas 'AnoXkav, knowing that Apollo himself held over him his hands, 

Y. CAUSAL SENTENCES. 

§ 250. Causal sentences express a cause or reason, and 
are introduced by 6™, cos, because, eirel, eirecBrj^ 6t6, 6tt6t6, 
since, and by other particles of similar meaning. They 
take the indicative after both primary and secondary tenses. 
The negative particle is ov. E. g. 

KnSero yap Aavacov, on pa OvrfCKovras oparo, for he pitied the 
Danai, because he saw them dying. "Ore tovQ* ovtcos e^ft, 7rpoarjK€i, 
&c., since this is so, it is becoming, &c. 

Xote. On the principle of indirect discourse (§ 248), the optative 
may be used in a causal sentence after a past tense, to imply that the 
cause is assigned on the authority of some other person than the 
speaker; as rbv HepacKea €KaKi£ov, on o-rparnyos av ovk eirej-ayoi, 
they abused Pericles, because (as they said) being general he did not lead 
them out. Thuc. (This assigns the reason why the Athenians abused 
him, and does not show the historian's opinion.) 



§ 251.] THE MOODS. 191 

VI. EXPRESSION OF A WISH. 

§ 251. 1. When a wish refers to the future, it is ex- 
pressed by the optative, either with or without eWe or el yap, 
that, if. The negative is fir), which can stand alone 
with the optative. E. g. 

To pev vvv ravTci it pr)a a- o is Tanep ev xepa\v e^ei?, for the present 
may you continue to do these things which you have now in hand. Hdt. 
EWe (piXos r)plu ye vo to, that you may become our friend. MnKtri 
£(pTjv eydo, may I no longer Hue. Te Bvainv, ore /not prjKeTi ravra 
/xe'Xot, may I die when I shall no longer care for these things (§ 235). 

For the distinction between the present and aorist, and an example 
illustrating it, see § 202, 1. 

2. When a wish refers to the present or the past, and it 
is implied that its object is not or was not attained, it is 
expressed by a secondary tense of the indicative with el6e 
or el yap, which here cannot be omitted. The imperfect 
and aorist are distinguished here as in protasis (§ 222). 
Eg. 

EWe tovto eiroiei, O that he were doing this, or that he had done 
this. EWe tovto eno In o- ev, that he had done this; el yap pr) 
eyevero tovto, that this had not happened. 

EiO' e lx € s (3€\tlovs tfipevas, that thou hadst a better understand- 
ing. Ei yap TocravT-qv bvvapiv elx ov '> that I had so great power, 
EWe aoi tot€ avvey evo pnv, that I had then met with you. 

Note 1. The aorist wfaXov of ofalXco, debeo, and in Homer some- 
times the imperfect wfaXXov, are used with the infinitive in wishes, 
with the same meaning as the secondary tenses of the indicative ; as 
a>(f)eXe tovto iroielv, would that he were doing this (lit. he ought to be 
doing this), or would that he had done this (habitually) ; axpeXe tovto 
no ir)o- ai y would that he had done this. 

"QcpeXov is negatived by pr) (not ov), and it may even be preceded 
by eWe or el yap ; as p r) ttot <3 (f> e X o v Xnre\v tt)v 2icvpov, O that I 
had never left Scyros ; el yap a><fieXov olol re ehai, that they were 
able, &c. As this is really an apodosis, like e8ei, &c, with the infini- 
tive (§ 222, N. 1), the use of eWe, el yap, and pr\ with it is an 
anomaly. 

Note 2. The two forms of wishes (§ 251) are elliptical forms of 
protasis, as is seen by el in eWe and el yap (sometimes in poetry the 
simple et), and by the force of the different tenses. 



192 SYNTAX. [§ 252. 

VII. IMPERATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE IN COMMANDS, 
EXHORTATIONS, AND PROHIBITIONS. 

§ 252. The imperative expresses a command, exhor- 
tation, or entreaty ; as Xeye, speak thou ; (fieuye, begone ! 
eXOerco, let him come ; %cupoPTcov, let them rejoice. 

Note. A singular combination of a command and a question is 
found in such phrases as ol<r6 y 6 bpaaov; do — dost thou know 
what ? 

§ 253. The first person of the subjunctive (generally 

plural) is used in exhortations. Its negative is fjt,rj. E. g. 

*I « fx e v , let us go: toco fie v, let us see ; pr) tovto tto lco jjlcv, let 
us not do this. 

Note. Both subjunctive and imperative may be preceded by aye 
(ayere), <p€pe, or '16 1, come! These words are used without re- 
gard to the number or person of the verb which follows; as aye 

fJ.ifJLV€T€ 7raVT€S' 

§ 254. In prohibitions, in the second and third persons, 
the present imperative or the aorist subjunctive is used with 
fjbrj and its compounds. E. g. 

M77 ttoUi tovto, do not do this (habitually), or do not go on doing 
this; pr) noirjo-rjs tovto, (simply) do not do this. Mr) Kara tovs 
vopovs diKacrrjTe' pr) (3 on Br) cr ar e tco ttcttovBotl heiva- fir) cvop- 
Kelre, do not judge according to the laws ; do not help him who has 
suffered outrages ; do not abide by your oaths. 

The two forms have merely the usual distinction between the pres- 
ent and aorist (§ 202, 1). 

Note. The third person of the aorist imperative sometimes occurs 
in prohibitions ; very rarely the second person. 

VIII. SUBJUNCTIVE LIKE FUTURE INDICATIVE IN HOMER. 
— INTERROGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. — SUBJUNCTIVE AND 
FUTURE INDICATIVE WITH Ov /irj. 

§ 255. In Homer, the subjunctive sometimes has the 
force of a future indicative in independent sentences. E. g. 

Ov yap ttco toiovs "Sou dvepas, ovt)e "oapai, for I never yet saw 
nor shall I ever see such men. Kai ttot€ tis c'Lirna-iv, and some one. 
will (or may) say. 



§ 259.] THE INFINITIVE. 193 

Note. This subjunctive may, like the" future indicative, take av or 
Ke to form an apodosis. See § 209, 2. 

§ 258. The first person of the subjunctive, and some- 
times the third, may be used in questions of doubt, where 
a person asks himself or another what he is to do. It is 
negatived by firj. It is often introduced by fiovXei or 
fiovXeade (in poetry 0e\€L$ or OeXere). E. g. 

E 1 7T a) ravra ; shall I say this ? or fiovXe i e'lnco ravra ; do you wish 
that I should say this ? Ilot rpdira> fiat ; ttoI 7rop€v6<o ; whither 
shall I turn ? whither shall I go f Ilov dr) fiovXei /ca&fo/iei/oi a v ay via - 
fiev; where now wilt thou that we sit down and read? Ti rts elvai 
tovto </># ; what shall any one (i. e. /) say this is f 

So in rl ird6(D ; what will become of me f what harm will it do me ? 
(lit. what shall I undergo ?). 

§ 257. The subjunctive and future indicative are used 
with the double negative ov fjurj in the sense of the future 
indicative with ou, but with more emphasis. E. g. 

Ov ur) 7r ISrjrai, he will not obey. Ovre yap ylyvcrai, ovre ykyovev, 
ovde ovv fJLrj yevnrai, for there is not, nor has there been, nor will 
there ever be, &c. Ov nor e£ ifiov ye ur) irdOns rode, you never 
shall suffer this at my hands. Ov rot fir)7rore <re . . . . clkovtol tls atjei, 

no one shall ever take you against your will, &c. 

The double negative here seems to have merely the force of em- 
phasis, and the subjunctive is a relic of the old usage (§ 255). The 
aorist subjunctive is generally used in these expressions. 

Note. This construction in the second person sometimes expresses 
a strong prohibition ; as ov urj Karafir)o-ei, do not come down (lit. 
you shall not come doion). The future indicative and the aorist sub- 
junctive are both allowed in this sense. The imperative force is to 
be explained as in § 200, N. 8. 

THE INFINITIVE. 

§ 258. The infinitive has the force of a neuter verbal 
noun, and may take the neuter article in all its cases. It 
may at the same time, like a verb, have a subject or ob- 
ject; and it is qualified by adverbs, not by adjectives. 

§ 259. The infinitive as nominative may be the sub- 



194 SYNTAX.. [§260. 

ject of a finite verb, especially of an impersonal verb 
(§ 134, K 2) or of earl; or it may be a predicate (§ 136). 
As accusative it may be the subject of another infinitive. 
E. g. 

Ivvefin aire* cXOelv, it happened to him to go; i^rjv piveiv, it 
was possible to remain ; del avTov ficveiv, he must remain ; tjBv ttoX- 
Xovs exOpovs exeti'; is it pleasant to have many enemies? $770-1 delv 
tovto tto irjo- at, he says it is necessary to do this (jroLrjo'ai is subject 
of delv). To yvavai iincrT-qprjv XafSclv €(ttlv, to learn is to acquire 
knowledge. Touro eari to abuttlv, this is to commit injustice. To yap 
Bdvarov 8 e 8 tevai ovbev aXXo iaTiv r) d o kcIv o~o<fiov € t v a i firj ovra, 
for to fear death is nothing else than to seem to be wise without being so. 

Note. These infinitives usually stand without the article ; but 
whenever it is desired to emphasize the infinitive, or to make the 
subject more prominent than the predicate (see the last examples), 
the article can be added. 

§ 260. The infinitive without the article may be the 
object of a verb. It generally has the force of an object 
accusative, sometimes that of a cognate accusative, and 
sometimes that of an object genitive. 

1. The object infinitive not in indirect discourse may follow 
any verb whose action implies another action as its object. Such 
verbs are in general the same in Greek as in English, and others 
must be learned by practice. E. g. 

BovXeTai iXQelv, he wishes to go; /3ouXerai tovs 7roXtray noXep-LKovs 
€ivai, he wishes the citizens to be warlike : Trapaivovfiiv o~oi /jlcvciv, 
we advise you to remain; irpociXeTo iroX* prj o-ai, he preferred to make 
war; kcXcvcl o-e prj aireXBtlv, he commands you not to depart; 
cl^lovctlv ap^etz/, they claim the right to rule ; dijiovTai SaveXv, he is 
thought to deserve to die; dco/iai vficov avyyvoop.Tjv /not e^ctv, I ask 
you to have consideration for me. So kcoXvcl ae j3a8 i£eiv, he pre- 
vents you from marching; ov novice dovXevciv, he is not born 
to be a slave; dvafidXXeTai tovto iroielv, he postpones doing 'his; 
KLvbvveveL Bavelv, he is in danger of death. 

The tenses here used are chiefly the present and aorist, and these 
do not differ in their time (§ 202, 1, 2, and 3). In this construction 
the infinitive has no more reference to time than any other verbal 
noun would have. 

2. The object infinitive in indirect discourse follows a verb 



§ 261.] THE INFINITIVE. 195 

implying thought or the expression of thought or some equivalent 
phrase. Here each tense of the infinitive corresponds in time 
to the same tense of some finite mood. See § 246, with the 
examples and Note. 

Note 1. Of the three common verbs meaning to say, c^upi regu- 
larly takes the infinitive in indirect discourse, €i7jw takes on or cos 
with the indicative or optative, and Xeyco allows either construction. 

Note 2. A relative clause depending on an infinitive in indirect 
discourse sometimes takes the infinitive by assimilation ; as eVeic^ £e 
yeve cr 6ai eVt rfj olida, (€<prj) dvecoypcvnv KaTa\ap.fidv€iv tj]V Bvpav, 
and when they came to the house, &c. Herodotus allows this even 
after «, if, and dion, because. 

§ 261. 1. The infinitive without the article limits the 
meaning of many adjectives and nouns. E. g. 

Avvaros noLelv roOro, able to do this ; beivbs \eyetv, skilled in 
speaking; agios tovto Xaftelv, worthy to receive this; irpoQvpos Xf- 
yciv, eager to speak; pakaKoi Kaprepelv, (too) effeminate to en- 
dure; lmvTT)p.<£>v \iyciv re kxu criydv, knowing how both to speak 
and to be silent. 

'AvdyKrj icrri irdvras direXSelv, there is a necessity that all should 
withdraw; Kivdvvos fjv ai™ naOelv ti, he was in danger of suffering 
something; <bpa diriivai, time to go away ; ekiribas €^et tovto noi?}- 
crai, he has hopes of doing this. 

Note. Adjectives of this class are especially those denoting ability, 
fitness, desert, readiness, and their opposites; and, in general, those 
corresponding in meaning to verbs which take the infinitive (§ 260, 1). 
Nouns of this class are such as form with a verb (generally elpl) an 
expression equivalent to a verb which takes the infinitive. Most 
nouns take the' infinitive with the article as an adnominal genitive 
(§262,. 2). 

2. Any adjective or adverb may take the infinitive 
without the article as an accusative of specification (§ 160, 

l); e. g . \ 

Qeapa alcrxpov 6 pdv, a sight disgraceful to behold ; \6yoi vp.1v XPI" 
o-ipcaraToi a novo- at, words most useful for you to hear ; tcl xaAe7ra>- 
rara evpelv, the things hardest to find; irokirela x a ^ €7r V o-v^rjv, a 
government hard to live under. KaXXiora lde7v, in a manner most 
delightful to behold. 

This infinitive is always active rather than passive; as irpdyp.a 



196 SYNTAX. [§ 262. 

Xakenov 7rotetv, a tMng hard to do, rather than ;£a\e7r6!/ 7roi€? 6ai % 
hard to be done. 

Note. Nouns and even verbs may take the infinitive on this prin- 
ciple; as Badfia IdeaOai, a wonder to behold. 'A/Moreueovce ft a* 
Xco-Bai, he was the first infighting (like iid^nv). Horn. 

§ 262. 1. The infinitive may depend on a preposition, 
in which case the article tov, tw, or to must be pre- 
fixed. E. g. 

Tipb tov rovs opKovs dirobovvai, before taking the oaths ; irpbs raJ 
/irjSev €K ttjs 7rp€o-^eias Xafieiv, besides receiving nothing by the em- 
bassy; dua to £evos elvai ovk av o'Ui ddiKn6rjvai, you think you would 
not be wronged on account of your being a stranger. 

2. The genitive and dative of the infinitive, with the 
article, can stand in most of the constructions belonging 
to those cases ; as in that of the adnominal genitive, the 
genitive after a comparative or after verbs and adjectives, 
the dative of manner y means, &c, the dative after verbs 
and adjectives, and sometimes in that of the causal 
genitive. E. g. 

Tov 7rielv imQvpla, a desire to drink; Kpelrrov tov XaXeii>, better 
than prating ; eVe'cr^o/ie** tov daKpvciv, ice ceased our weeping 
(§ 263); drjBeis tov KaraKove iv twos elcriv, they are unused to 
obeying any one. T<5 fyavepbs etvai tolovtos &v, by having it evident 
that he was such a man; ra> Koa-plws (rjv irio-Teveiv, to trust in an 
orderly life; 'lo-ov tS tt poo-Teveiv, equal to lamenting beforehand. 
Mlvcos to \t]o-tik6v KaOrjpei, tov Tas 7Tpoo-6Bovs fxaWov levai avT&, 
Minos put down piracy, that his revenues might come in more abun- 
dantly. Thuc. 

§ 263. 1. Verbs and expressions denoting hindrance or 
freedom from anything allow either the infinitive with tov 
(§ 262, 2) or the simple infinitive (§ 260, 1). As the infinitive 
after such verbs can take the negative /^ without affecting the 
sense (§ 283, 6), we have a third and fourth form, still with 
the same meaning. (See Note, and § 263, 2.) E. g. 

Eipyet ere tovto iroiclv, c'lpyei o~€ tov tovto 7roie7v, elpyei ere 
(j. r) tovto it o i € T v , e'lpyei o~€ tov /x t) tovto ttoizIv, all meaning he 
prevents you from doing this. Tov ^lKlitttov TrapeXOeiv ovk ibvvavTO 
KoAvo-ai, they could not hinder Philip from passing through. Tov 8i 



§ 261] THE INFINITIVE. 197 

dpa7T€T€V€iv antipyovai, they restrain them from running away. 
"Onep ecr^e fxr) tt)v licXoirovvno-ov tt o pS elv, which prevented (him) 
from ravaging Peloponnesus. f/ E|€t clvtovs tov fir) Karadvvai, it 
will keep them from sinking. 

Note. When the leading verb is negatived (or interrogative im- 
plying a negative), the double negative p.r) ov is generally used rather 
than the simple fir) with the infinitive (§ 283, 7), so that we can say 
ovk e'lpyei ere fir) ov tovto notelv, he does not prevent you from 
doing this. Tov fir) ov Ttoielv is rarely (if ever) used. 

2. The infinitive with to pi) is sometimes used after expres- 
sions denoting hindrance, and also after all which even imply 
prevention, omission, or denial. This infinitive with to is less 
closely connected with the leading verb than are the forms 
just mentioned (1), and it may often be considered an accusa- 
tive of specification (§ 160, 1), and sometimes (as after verbs of 
denial) an object accusative. Sometimes it expresses merely a 
result. E. g. 

Tov opCkov clpyov to fir) tcl iyyvs Trjs 7rdAea)s Kaicov pyelv, they 
prevented the crowd from injuring the neighboring parts of the city. 
(This adds a fifth form ei/jyei ere to fir) tovto iroitlv to the four 
already given in § 263, 1, as equivalents of the English he prevents 
you from doing this). Klficova irapa Tpets dcpelcrav yjsrjcpovs to fir) 
Savdrco £n picoo-ai, they allowed Cimon by three votes to escape the 
punishment of death ; lit. they let him off (so as) not to punish him with 
death. 

Here, as above (1, Note), pr) ov is used when the leading verb is 
negatived ; as ovhev yap avTca tovt eVap/cecrei to fir) ov 7r e cr e I z> , 
for this will not at all suffice to prevent him from falling. 

§ 264. The infinitive with its subject, object, or other ad- 
juncts (sometimes including dependent clauses) may be pre- 
ceded by the article, the whole standing as a single noun in 
any ordinary construction. E. g. 

T 6 hi p>r)T€ irakaL tovto it e 7T ov 6 e vai, 7T eqbnvc vai re Tiva rj/juv 
o-vfifia^iav tovtcov avrippoirov, civ ftovXwpeOa xprjcrOcit., ttjs Trap eKelvcov 
€vvolas evepytTvp ov eyaye 6dr\v, but the fact that we have not suffered 
this long ago, and that an alliance has appeared to us to balance these, 
if we shall wish to use it, — this I should ascribe as a benefaction to their 
good-will. Dem. (Here the whole sentence to ... . xPW@ aL * s the 
object of Oelrjv.) 



198 SYNTAX. [§ 265. 

§ 265. The infinitive without the article may express 
a purpose. E. g. 

Ol apxovres, ovs etXeaOe apx^iv pov, the rulers^ whom you chose to 
rule me. Trjv irokiv (pvXdrre iv avrols napebcoKav, they delivered the 
city to them to guard. At yvvcuK.es it t e I v cpepovo-cu, the women bring- 
ing them {something') to drink. 

Note. In Homer, where coo-re is seldom used in its sense of so 
as, the simple infinitive may express a result; as ris crcpcoe i-vverjice 
fxdx^ crBaij wlio brought them into conflict, so as to contend? 

Such expressions as pei^ov rj cpepeiv, too great to bear, are to be 
explained on the same principle. 

§ 266. 1. The infinitive after ware, so that, so as, ex- 
presses a result. E. g. 

'Hi> ireiraibevpLevos ovrcos, cocrre rrdvv pahioas e;(eii> dpKovvra, he 
had been so educated as very easily to have enough. 2v he crxokd^eis, 
coo- re 6av pd£eiv ifie, and you delay, so that I wonder. 

2. The infinitive after ware sometimes expresses a con- 
dition, like that after e<£' <*> or icj> are j and sometimes a 
purpose, like a final clause. E. g. 

'Efoi> avrols rav Xonrcov apxeiv 'EXkrjvoov, &crr avrovs virafcoveiv 
Pao-ikel, it being in their power to rule the rest of the Greeks, on condi- 
tion that they should themselves obey the King. Yidv noiovcnv wore 
bUnv fir) bidovai, they do everything, so that they may not suffer pun- 
ishment (Iva fif) di&axrt might have been used). 

Note 1. 'Qs sometimes takes the infinitive like wore, generally to 
express a result, seldom to express a purpose. 

Note 2. "Go-re may also take the indicative to express a result 
(§ 237). "Gore in Homer usually means as, like caairep. (See § 265, 
Note.) 

§ 267. The infinitive follows i<f> a> or €<f> &>re, on con- 
dition that, for the purpose of E. g. 

9 A<l>i€fjL€v (re, em rovrco fievroi, eft yre fMn^ri <f)i\o (T o eiv, ice 

release you, but on this condition, that you shall no longer be a philoso- 
pher. AlpeSevres ty fre £vyy pdyfrai vopovs, chosen for the purpose 
of compiling laws. 

For the future indicative after these words, see § 236, N. 2. 

§ 268. The infinitive may stand absolutely in paren- 
thetical phrases, generally with &>? or ocrov. E. g. 



§ 273.] THE INFINITVE. 199 

To AfKra io-rl veoovTi, cos Aoyw e In civ, dvaire^nvos, the Delta has 
recently, so to speak, made its appearance. So cos tiros el it civ, so to 
speak ; cos awTOfxcos (or vvvikovTi, § 184, 5) el-rreiv, to speak concisely ; 
to ^vynrav e I it e 7 v , on the whole ; cos dire ucda at, to judge (i. e. as 
far as we can judge); 6o~ov ye fi eldevai, as far as I know; 60s 
ep.o\ b o kc7v, or e/xoi b o k e 1 v , as it seems to me ; ov ttoWqo Xoycp 
elirelv, not to make along story, in short. So oXlyov bclv, to want 
little, i. e. almost ; in which belv can be omitted. 

Note. In certain cases eivai seems to be superfluous; especially 
in €kcov elvai, willing or willingly, which generally stands in a 
negative sentence. So to vvv elvai, at present ; r6 Trjpcpov elvai, 
to-day; to iir €K€lpols clvai, as far as depends on them, and some 
other phrases. 

§ 269. The infinitive is sometimes used like the im- 
perative, especially in Homer. E. g. 

M77 7tot€ Kal av yvvaiKi irep rjiTLos eivai, be thou never indulgent to 
thy wife. The subject is here in the nominative; but in the three 
next constructions it is in the accusative. 

§ 270. The infinitive sometimes expresses a wish, like the 
optative. This occurs chiefly in poetry. E. g. 

Zed irarep, Tj Alavra Xa^fti/ rj Tvbeos vlov, Father Zeus, may the 
lot fall either on Ajax or on the son of Tydeus. Horn. 

§ 271. In laws, treaties, and proclamations, the infinitive 
often depends on ebo£e or beboKTai, be it enacted, or k cAe ve- 
ra 1, it is commanded; which may be expressed in a previous 
sentence or understood. E. g. 

AiKa£e iv be tt}v ev 'Apa'o) irdyoo cj)6vov, &c, and (be it enacted) 
that the Senate on the Areopagus shall have jurisdiction in cases of 
murder, &c. *Ettj be elvai Tas airovbas TTevTr\Kovra, and that the 
treaty shall continue fifty years. 

§ 272. The infinitive, with or without to, may be used to 
express surprise or indignation. E. g. 

Trjs Hooplas* to Ala v o p.i£e iv , ovra ttjXucovtovl, what folly ! to be- 
lieve in Zeus when you are so big ! So in Latin : Mene incepto desi- 
stere victam ! 

§ 273. In narration, the infinitive often seems to stand 
for the indicative, when it depends on some word like 
\eyerai, it is said, in a preceding sentence. E. g. 



200 SYNTAX. [§ 274. 

9 A7tiko}L€vovs 5e is to Apyos, d iclt IB e (r6ai t6v (f>6pTov, and com- 
ing to Argos, they were (it is said) setting out their cargo for sale 
(diaTiOeo-Oai is an imperfect infinitive, § 203, 1ST. 1). Hdt. I. 1. See 
Hdt. I. 24, and Xen. Cyr. I. 3, 5. 

§ 274* nplp, before, before that, until, besides taking 
the indicative, subjunctive, and optative (§ 240), also takes 
the infinitive. This happens in Attic Greek chiefly after 
affirmative sentences, but in Homer without regard to the 
leading verb. E. g. 

, A7ro7T€fXTrovo'iv avrbv irpiv aKovo-ac, they send him away before he 
hears. Meaarjvrjv elXopev irp\v Hepaas Xafielv tt]v fiaarCksiav, we took 
Messene before the Persians obtained their kingdom. 

See the rules for irpiv with the finite moods, § 240. 

Note. TLp\v fj, it pore pov rj, irpoa-Qev rj, before that, sooner 
than, and even v are pov fj, later than, may take the infinitive like 
irpiv alone. See § 240, Note. 



THE PARTICIPLE. 



§ 275. The participle is a verbal adjective, and has three 
uses. First, it may express a simple attribute, like an ordinary 
adjective ; secondly, it may define the circumstances under which 
an action takes place ; thirdly, it may form part of the predi- 
cate with certain verbs, often having a force resembling that 
of the infinitive. 

§ 276. 1. The participle, like any other adjective, may 
qualify a noun. Here it must often be translated by a 
relative and a finite verb, especially when it is preceded 
by the article. E. g. 

IIoAfc? KaKXcL ft ia(f> € pov era, a city excelling in beauty ; dvrjp KaXcbs 
it eiraiScv pevos, a man who has been tvell educated (or a well-edu- 
cated man)] ol 7rpeV/3ei? oi vnb QCk'nrirov tt e p(f) 6 £ vt e s, the ambas- 
sadors who were sent by Philip ; avdpcs ol tovto it o irj o~ovre s , men 
who are to do this. 

2. The participle preceded by the article may be used 
substantively, like any other adjective. It is then equiva- 
lent to he who or those who with a finite verb. E. g. 

Ol TTC7TC to" fie v o i, those who have been convinced / rrapa to7s dpi- 






§ 277.] THE PARTICIPLE. 201 

otois doKova iv elvai, among those who seem to be best ; 6 rr^v yvwprjv 
ravTrjv gItt&v, the one who gave this opinion; rots 'Apicddcov crcfrercpots 
ova i £vfMfJLdxois irpoelirov, they proclaimed to those who were their allies 
among the Arcadians. 

§ 277. The participle may define the circumstances of 
an action. It expresses the following relations : — 

1. Time ; the tenses denoting various points of time, which 
is relative to that of the verb of the sentence (§ 204). E. g. 

Tavra e-rrparre ar parrjy cov, he did this while he was general; 
ravra irpdi-ei ar parrjy a>v, he will do this while he is general; rv pav- 
vev a as Se err) rpia 'linrias e^capei ey 2iyeiov, and when he had been 
tyrant three years, he withdrew to Sigeum. 

2. Cause, manner, means, and similar relations, including 
manner of employment. E. g. 

Aeyoa be rovrov eveica, ftovXo fievos ho^ai aoi onep ipol, and I 
speak for this reason, because I wish that to seem good to you which, &c. 
UpociXero fJLaWov rots vopois e \i fxevcov airoOaveiv rj tt ap avo pcov 
£f}v, he preferred to die abiding by the laws rather than to live transgress- 
ing them ; rovro inolrjae XaOoov, he did this secretly ; aTredrjpti rpin- 
papx&v, he was absent on duty as trier arch. An i£6 p.€vot £coaw, they 
live by plunder. 

3. Purpose or intention; generally expressed by the future 
participle* E. g. 

*H\6e Xvaopevos Qvyarpa, he came to ransom his daughter. Horn. 
U€fX7T€iv 7rpeV/3efc? ravra i povvras kcli Avaavbpov alrrjaovras, to 
send ambassadors to say this and to ask for Lysander. 

4. Condition ; the tenses of the participle representing the 
corresponding tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, or optative, 
in all classes of protasis. 

See § 226, 1, where examples will be found. 

5. Opposition or limitation ; where the participle is generally 
to be translated by although and a verb. E. g. 

'OXrya Bwdfievoi irpoopav, ttoKKcl iirix^pov^ev rrpdrreiv, although 
we are able to foresee few things, we try to do many things, 

6. Any attendant circumstance, the participle being merely 

descriptive. E. g. 

*Epxcrat. rbv vlbv exovaa, she comes bringing her son; irapa\a- 
9* 



202 SYNTAX. [§ 278. 

ftovres tovs Bolcotovs eo-rpdrevo-av em $dpo~a\ov, taking the Boeotians 

with them, they marched against Pharsalus. 

Note 1. The adverbs aft a, fiera^v, ev6vs, atrt/ca, and e^ai- 
cj)vns are often connected (in position and in sense) with the tempo- 
ral participle, while grammatically they qualify the verb of the sen- 
tence; as a p. a kclt a\a/3 6 vtc s TvpoveKearo o"(f)i, as sooti as they 
overtook them they pressed hard apon them ; Ne*o)s fiera^v opvaacov 
iiravo-aTo, Necho stopped while digging {the canal). Hdt. 

The participle denoting opposition is often strengthened by Kaiirep 
or Kal, although, in the poets also kcll .... irep) as eiroiKTeipa viv, 
Kaiirep opt a dvo-fjLtvrji I pity him, although he is an enemy. 

Note 2. The participles denoting cause or purpose are often pre- 
ceded by <»ff. This shows that they express the idea of the subject 
of the leading verb or that of some other person prominent in the 
sentence, without implying that it is also the idea of the speaker or 
writer; as top UepiKkea iv alria el^ov as n e iar avra o~(pas iroKepLelv, 
they found fault icith Pericles, on the ground that he had persuaded them 
to the tear; dyavaKTovo~Lv <os p,eyd\<ov tlvcqv cltt e err e prj p.e v o i<, they 
are indignant, because {as they say) they have been deprived of some 
great blessings. 

The participle denoting cause is often emphasized by are, olov, 
or ota, as, inasmuch as; but these particles have no such force as 
a>s (above); as are nais a>v, fjdero, inasmuch as he was a child, he 
was pleased. 

Xote 3. "Qcnrep, as, before a conditional participle, generally 
belongs to an implied apodosis, to which the participle forms the 
protasis; as ao'Trep rjdr] o~a(f)ci)s el bores, ovk eSeXer dicoveiv, you 
are unwilling to hear, as (you would be) if you already knew it well. 
Here coonrep means merely as ; the if belongs to the participle. 
Compare (oa-irep el \eyois, as if you should say. 

§ 278. 1. When a participle denoting any of the rela- 
tions included in § 277 belongs to a noun which is not 
connected with the main construction of the sentence, they 
stand together in the genitive absolute. 

See § 183, and the examples there given. All the particles men- 
tioned in the notes to § 277 can be used here. 

2. The participles of impersonal verbs stand in the accusative 
absolute, in the neuter singular, when others would be in the 
genitive absolute. So with passive participles and ov when 
they are used impersonally. E. g. 



§ 279.] THE PARTICIPLE. 203 

Ot &' ov (So7)6r)(ravT€$, deov, vyiels cnrrjXQov; and did those who 
brought no aid when it was needed escape safe and sound f So eu Se 
napao-xovy and when a good opportun ity offered ; ovirpoa-rjKov, 
improperly (it being not becoming)] n poarrax^^v p>*i when I had 
been commanded ; elpnp-cvov, when it has been said ; abvvarov ov, it 
being impossible ; airoppryrov noXei (sc. ov), when it is forbidden by the 
state. 

Note. The participles of personal verbs sometimes stand with 
their nouns in the accusative absolute, but very seldom unless they 
are preceded by as or coo-nep. 

§ 279. The participle may be used to limit the mean- 
ing of certain verbs, in a sense which often resembles that 
of the infinitive (§ 260, 1). 

1. In this sense the participle is used with verbs signifying 
to begin, to continue, to endure, to cease (or cause to cease), to rep- 
resent, to find, and some others. E. g. 

*Ap£ofiai XeycDVy I will begin to speak ; 7ravcrai Xcyovcra, cease 
speaking; ovk avi^o\iai ££>v, I shall not endure to live; tovto €\cov 
diareXel, he continues to have this; TrenolnKe tovs iv "Aidov tov del 
Xpovov rip.co pov ficvovs, he has represented these in Hades as suffer- 
ing continual punishment. Evpe Kpovldrjv arep rjfievov aXXav, she 
found the son of Kronos sitting apart from the others. Horn. 

2. With the following verbs the participle contains the lead- 
ing idea of the expression: XavBdva, to escape the notice of; 
rvyxavco, to happen; (j)dav<o, to anticipate. The aorist parti- 
ciple here does not denote past time, but coincides in time with 
the verb (§ 204, K 2). E. g. 

Ar)o-€T€ d ia(f>0ap€VT€ $, you will be corrupted before you know it. 
"Etvxov KaOrj p.€vo s ivravOa, I happened to be sitting there : erv^e 
Kara tovto tov Kaipov iXOvv, he happened to come (not to have come) 
just at that time. "E^dyo-civ tovs Yiepcras clitiko /uei/ot, they came 
before the Persians. Hdt. Ovft apa KipKrjv eXSovres iXrjOopev, nor 
did ice come without Circe's knowing it. Horn. See examples under 
§ 204, N. 2. 

The perfect participle here has its ordinary force. 

Note. The participle with SiareXeo), to continue (§ 279, 1), 
oip/xat, to be gone (§ 277,2), 6ap.L£<o, to be wont or to be fre- 
quent, and some others, expresses the leading idea; but the aorist 
participle with these has no peculiar force ; as ot^erat (pevycov, he 
has taken flight (§ 200, N. 3); ov 6ap.l^€is KaTaftaivcov els tov 
Ueipaia, you don't come down to the Peiraeus very often. 



204 SYNTAX. [§ 280. 

3. "With verbs signifying to overlook or to allow (nepiopda) 
and ec^opaa), with Trepieibov and ineldov, sometimes eldov), the 
participle is used in the sense of the object infinitive (§ 260, 1), 
the present and aorist participles differing merely as the present 
and aorist infinitives would differ in similar constructions (§ 202, 
1). E. g. 

Mr) Treptidcopev v (3 p icr 6 el a av rr)v AaKebaipova kol Karacf) p ovrj- 
tielaav, let us not allow Lacedaemon to be insulted and despised. 
Mr) p Idelv BavovO* vtt dorrcov, not to see me killed by citizens. Eur. 
TXtjvcu (re dpcoaav, that thou shouldst take courage to do. Soph. 
Tlepudelv n)v yr)v t prj delo-av, to allow the land to be ravaged. Thuc. 
II. 18. (But in II. 20, we find irepudelv Trjv yr)v r/xrjdrjvai, referring 
to the same thing.) See § 204, N. 2. 

§ 280. With many verbs the participle stands in indi- 
rect discourse, each tense representing the corresponding 
tense of the indicative or optative. 

Such verbs are chiefly those signifying to see, to perceive, to 
know, to hear or learn, to remember, to forget, to shoiv, to appear, 
to prove, to acknowledge, and dyyeWco, to announce. 

See § 246 and examples; and § 211 for examples of the par- 
ticiple with av representing both indicative and optative with av. 

Note 1. A r)\6s el pi and (^avepos el pi take the participle 
in indirect discourse, where we use an impersonal construction ; as 
dijXos t)v olopcvos, &c, it was evident that he thought, &c. (like 
drjXov f)u on ot'otro). 

Note 2. With avvoida or o-vyyiyvdxrKG) and a dative of 
the reflexive, a participle may be in either the nominative or dative ; 
as crvvoiha ipavTcp rjdiKr) pevcp (or rjdiKnpevos), I am conscious 
to myself that I have been wronged. 

Note 3. Most of the verbs included in § 280 may take a clause 
with. on in indirect discourse. 

Most of them are found also with the infinitive, otda takes the 
infinitive regularly when it means I know how; as olda tovto paBclv, 
I know how to learn this (but olba tovto p a B co v, I know that I learned 
this). 

Note 4. *Q? may be used before this participle in the sense ex- 
plained in § 277, N. 2. The genitive absolute with a>s is sometimes 
found where we should expect the participle to agree with the object 
of the verb; as <S)$ Tro\ipov ovtos nap* vp&v dirayyikco ; shall 1 



§ 282.] INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 205 

announce from you that there is ivarf (lit. assuming that there is war, 
shall I announce it from you ?), where we might have ir6\ep.ov ovra 
a7rayyeXa> ; with less emphasis. 

VERBAL ADJECTIVES IN -reo? AND -reap. 

§ 281. The verbal in -Te'09 has both a personal and an 
impersonal construction. 

1. In the personal construction it is passive in sense, 
and expresses necessity, like the Latin participle in.--dus. 
Kg. 

'S2<£e A^rea croi r) noXis co-tlv, the city must be benefited by you. 
*A\\as fJL€Ta7T€ fj.7TTeas elvcu (ec^), he said that other (ships) must be 
sent for. *0 Xeyco pnriov kvriv, what I say must be spoken. 

The noun denoting the agent is in the dative (§ 188, 4). 

2. In the impersonal construction the verbal is in the 
neuter of the nominative singular (sometimes plural), with 
earl expressed or understood. It is active in sense, and is 
equivalent to Bel with the infinitive. 

The agent is generally expressed by the dative, some- 
times by the accusative. These verbals may have an 
object like their verbs. E. g. 

Tavra fjfuv (or rjfias) tt oitjtcov io-riv, we must do this (equivalent 
to ravra r)p.as Set Troir)<jai, § 184, 2, N. 1). Olartov rddc, we must 
bear these things (sc. r)yuv). Tt av avrco noinrcov ctrj ; what would 
he be obliged to do? 'E^^io-airo 7ro\e pnrea elvai, they voted that 
they must go to war (= dclv iroXefieiv). Tovs tjvfJLfJLaxovs ov rrapado- 
ria rots 'ASrjvaiois io-riv, we must not abandon our allies to the Athe- 
nians. 

The Latin has this construction in deponent verbs ; as Moriendum 
est omnibus, — Bello utendum est nobis. 

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

§ 282. 1. All interrogative pronouns, pronominal adjec- 
tives, and adverbs can be used in both direct and indirect 
questions. The relative oar Is (sometimes o?) may be used in 
indirect questions. (See § 149.) 

2. The principal direct interrogative particles are t) and a pa. 



206 SYNTAX. [§283. 

These imply nothing as to the answer expected; but a pa ov 
implies that an affirmative, a pa pi) that a negative, answer is 
expected. Ov and pi) alone are often used with the same force 
as with apa. So p & v (for pi) ovv). E. g. 

*H axokr] ea-Tai; will there be leisure? *Ap elcri Tives a£iai ; are 
there any deserving ones? *Kp ov (or Ov) (3ov\ea6e ekBelv ; do you 
not wish to go (i. e. you wish, do you not) ? *Apa pi) j3ov\e<r6e eXOelv ; 
(or M^ fiovkecrBe ; or Mcov fiovXecrde ;) do you wish to go (you don't wish 
to go, do you) ? This distinction between ov and pi) does not apply to 
the interrogative subjunctive (§ 256), which allows only pi). 

3. *K\\o tl fj ; is it anything else thin? or simply a\\o tl; 
is sometimes used as a direct interrogative. E. g. 

"AXXo tl rj adifcovfiev ; are we not (are we anything else than) in 
in the wrong ; a Wo tl opoXoyovpev ; do we not agree ? 

4. Indirect questions may be introduced by el, ivhether ; and 
in Homer by fj or r)e. E. g. 

'Hpcorrjcra el /3ov\olto eXSelv, I asked ivhether he wished to go. "Qlxcto 
irevcropevos rj ttov €T elrjs, he was gone to inquire ivhether possibly you 
were still living. Horn. 

5. Alternative questions (both direct and indirect) may be 
introduced by norepov (noTepa) . . . fj, whether . . . or. Indirect 
alternative questions can also be introduced by et . . . fj, etre . . . 
etre, etVe ... 7, whether ... or ; and in Homer by fj (r)e) . . . 

*(?*)• E.g. 

ILorepov ias cipxeiv r) aXKov KaBivTns ; do you allow him to rule, or 
do you appoint another ? 'jLfiovXevero el irepnoLev TLvas rj ndirres 'loLev, 
he was deliberating whether they should send some or should all go. 

NEGATIVES. 

§ 283. The Greek has two negative adverbs, ov and pi). 
What is said of each of these applies to its compounds, — ovdeis, 
ovde', ovt€, &C, and pndeis, pnde, pr)Te, &C. 

1. Ov is used with the indicative and optative in all inde- 
pendent sentences (except wishes, which are really elliptical 
protases, § 251, Note 2); also in indirect discourse after oti 
and as, and in causal sentences. See Note, below. 

2. Mi) is used with the subjunctive and imperative in all 
constructions (except the Homeric subjunctive, § 255, which 



§ 283.] NEGATIVES. 207 

has the force of a future indicative). Mr) is used in oil final and 
object clauses after iva, onus, &c. ; except after /zq, lest, which 
takes ov. It is used in all conditional sentences, in relative 
sentences with an indefinite antecedent (§ 231) and the corre- 
sponding temporal sentences after ecos, irpiv, &c. (§§ 239, 240), 
in relative sentences expressing a purpose (§ 236), and in all 
expressions of a wish (§ 251). 

3. Mr] is used with the infinitive in all constructions, both 
with and without the article, except that of indirect discourse. 
In indirect discourse it regularly has ov, to retain the negative 
of the direct discourse ; but some exceptions occur. 

4. When a participle expresses a condition (§ 277, 4) it takes 
firj i so when it is equivalent to a relative with an indefinite 
antecedent (as ol /lit) fiovXofievoi, any ivho do not ivisk). Otherwise 
it takes ov. In indirect discourse it sometimes, like the infini- 
tive, takes fir) irregularly. 

5. Adjectives follow the same principle with participles, tak- 
ing firj only when they do not refer to definite persons or things 
(i. e. when they can be expressed by a relative with an indefi- 
nite antecedent) ; as ol fir) dyaBol noXIrai, (any) citizens who are 
not good, but ol ovk dyadol nokiTai means special citizens w/to are 
not good. 

6. When verbs which contain a negative idea (as those of 
hindering, forbidding, denying, concealing, and distrusting) are 
followed by the infinitive, the negative pr) can be added to the 
infinitive to strengthen the negation. Such a negative cannot 
be translated in English, and can always be omitted in Greek. 
For examples see § 263. 

7. When an infinitive would regularly be negatived by \ir), 
either in the ordinary way (3) or to strengthen a preceding 
negation (6), if its leading verb has a negative, it generally takes 
the double negative fxi) ov. Thus bUaiov kori fir) tovtov dfalvai, 
it is just not to acquit him, becomes, if we negative the leading 
verb, ov biKaiov icrri fir) ov tovtov cKpelvai, it is not just not to 
acquit him. So cos ov\ oariov crot ov fir) ov ftorfStlv biKaiocrvvrj, since 
(as you said) it was a failure in piety for you not to assist justice. 
Again, ei/ryet o-c fir) tovto Troielv (§ 263, 1), he prevents you from 
doing this, becomes, with «/ry« negatived, ovk eipyet o-e /19 ov 
tovto iroiciv, he does not prevent you from doing this. 



208 SYNTAX. [§ 283. 

Mrj ov is used also when the leading verb is interrogative implying 
a negative; as rt cpwodoiv prj ov^t vftpi£opevovs anoBavelv; what 
is there to prevent (lis) from being insulted and perishing ? 

It is sometimes used with participles, or even nouns, to express an 
exception to a negative statement. 

8. When a negative is followed by a simple negative (ov or 
fjLrj) in the same clause, each retains its own force. If they 
belong to the same word or expression, they make an affirma- 
tive ; as ovhe top QopiALcova oi>x opa, nor does he not see Phormio 
(i. e. he sees Phormio well enough). But if they belong to differ- 
ent words, each is independent of the other; as ov di epireiplav 
ye ov <j)r)(T€{.$ e'xeiv o tl 6173779, it is not surely through inexperience 
that you will deny that you have anything to say ; ov jiovov ov 
TrelBovaiv, they not only do not obey ; el prj lipo^evov ov\ vnebe- 
gavTo, if they had not refused to receive Proxenus. 

But when a negative is followed by a compound negative in 
the same clause (or by several), the negation is strengthened ; 
as avev tovtov ovdels els ovdev ovdevos av vpa>v ovdenore 
yevoiTo a£ios, if it were, not for this, no one of you would ever 
come to be of any value for anything. This does not apply to 
cases in which ov is merely interrogative (§ 282, 2). 

For the double negative ov pfj, see § 257. 

Note. An exception to § 283, 1 occurs in indirect questions after 
el, whether, in which \ir\ can be used as well as ov. Also in the second 
part of an indirect alternative question (§ 282, 5) both ov and pr\ are 
allowed. Thus o-K.oiriop.ev el irpeirei rj ov, let us look and see whether 
it is becoming or not ; el be d\rj6es rj p. 77 , ireipao-opai p.a6elv, but I will 
try to learn whether it is true or not. 



PART IV. 



METRES. 

§ 284. A verse is composed of portions called feet The 
following are the feet of two and three syllables : — 



Trochee 


w 


Dactyl — w w 


Amphibrach 


Iambus 


^_, 


Anapaest w w __ 


Bacchius 


Spondee 





Tribrach w w w 


Antibacchius 


Pyrrhic 


S_X >w* 


Cretic _ w — 


Molossus 



The following are the feet of four syllables : — 

Choriambtis __ w w — Ditrochee _ w _ w 

Jotmc a majore w w Diiambus w _ ,_ ^_ 

.ZoTzic a minore w w Dispondee 

Proceleusmatic w w w w Antispast w 

To these are to be added 

Four Paeons, __ www, w — w w , w w — w , www—; 

And four Epitrites, w , _ w , w «. , w . 

The Dochmius has five syllables, w w — . 

§ 285. 1. Verses are called Trochaic, Iambic, Dactylic, &c. 
from their fundamental foot. 

2. In most kinds of verse a monometer consists of one foot, a 
dimeter of two feet, a trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, or hexameter, 
of three, four, five, or six feet. But in trochaic, iambic, and 
anapaestic verses, which are measured by dipodies (i. e. pairs 
of feet), a monometer consists of one dipody (or two feet), a 
dimeter of four feet, a trimeter of six feet, and a tetrameter of 
eight feet. 

3. A verse which has an unfinished foot at the close is called 
catalectic (KardXrjKTos, stopped short). A complete verse is called 
acatalectic. 

Verses are called catalectic in syllabam, in dissyllabum, or in trissyl- 
labum, according to the number of syllables which appear in the un- 



210 METRES. [§ 286. 

finished foot. A verse cataJectic in syllabam is sometimes said to be 
Jiypercatalectic (or redundant) ; thus a trimeter catalectic in syllabam 
can be called a dimeter Jiypercatalectic. 

§ 286. 1. A long syllable is considered the metrical equiv- 
alent of two short ones, and is often resolved into these, as 
when a tribrach w w w stands for a trochee _ ^ or an iambus 
w _ . Two short syllables are often contracted into one long 
syllable, as when a spondee stands for a dactyl _ w w . 

2. The last syllable of every verse is common (syllaba anceps), 
and may be considered long or short to suit the metre, without 
regard to its usual quantity. 

§ 287. 1. The syllable of a foot on which the stress of 
voice {ictus or rhythmical accent) falls is called the arsis; the 
rest of the foot is called the thesis. The ictus properly falls on 
a long syllable : as jL_, ^ jL , i- _ _ , __^_, L. _ w _i , 

When a long syllable in the arsis is resolved into two short (§ 286, 
1), the ictus properly belongs to the two, but is usually placed on the 
first. Thus a tribrach used for a trochee (-'- w ) is <*, w w ; a tribrach 
used for an iambus (w— ) is w >£w So a spondee used for a dactyl 
(_£_ w w ) is L. _ ; a spondee used for a anapaest ( w ^JL) is _ _L . Like- 
wise a dactyl used for an anapaest is —S w . The spondee and tribrach 
have no natural arsis or thesis; and they are used only as metrical 
equivalents of feet which have these naturally marked by a long 
syllable. 

2. The ictus was entirely independent of the word-accent, 
although we do not know how the two were distinguished or 
reconciled by the Greeks in reciting poetry. 

We usually mark the ictus by our accent (as the only representa- 
tive of the ancient ictus which we have), and neglect the word-accent 
or make it subordinate to the ictus. 

§ 288. 1. Certain verses have an introductory foot prefixed 
to them, called a basis. A basis is generally a trochee, iambus, 
or spondee ; sometimes a tribrach, dactyl, or anapaest. 

2. A single syllable prefixed to a verse of which the first 
syllable has the ictus is called an anacrusis (dvaKpovcris, upward 
beat). 

§ 289. Caesura (i. e. cutting) of the foot occurs when a word 



§ 292.] TROCHAIC AND IAMBIC VERSES. 211 

.ends in the middle of a foot. This becomes important when it 
coincides with the caesura of the verse, which is a pause introduced 
into the verse to make it more melodious or to aid in its recital. 
In many verses the place of one or both of these caesuras is 
fixed. See § 293, 4 ; § 295, 4 and 5. 

TROCHAIC VERSES. 

§ 290. Trochaic verses are measured by dipodies (§ 285, 2). 
The trochaic dipody has the last syllable common, __ w _ 3 . 
In trochaic verse, therefore, the tribrach ^ ww can stand in 
any place for the trochee ; and the spondee can stand in all 
the even places, that is, in the second part of every dipody. The 
anapaest is sometimes used as the equivalent of the spondee. 
The dactyl is sometimes used in proper names. 

§ 291. The following are the most common trochaic 
verses : — 

1. The dimeter (acatalectic and catalectic), — 

&r)o-ofiev npos \ tovs orpaTrjyovs* w — 3 | — ^ 3 

"Jrvxayayel | 2(DKpaTrjs. __ w _ 3 | _ w ^ 

2. The tetrameter catalectic, consisting of seven feet and a 
syllable, or of the two preceding verses combined : — 

*{2 0-o<£a>ra|TOfc Oearai, || devpo tov vovv I Trpoer^ere. 

Tell me not in | mournful numbers, || life is but an | empty dream. 

3. The Ithy phallic, which is a trochaic tripody (not allowing 
the spondee or its equivalents), — 

Mf)7T0T iKTdKeiT]. _ w __ w __ 3 

For trochaic systems see § 298. 

IAMBIC VERSES. 

§ 292. Iambic verses are measured by dipodies (§ 285, 2). 
The iambic dipody has the first syllable common, — __ w _ . In 
iambic verse, therefore, the tribrach can stand in any place for 
the iambus ; and the spondee can stand in the odd places, that 
is, in the first part of every dipody. The dactyl and anapaest 



212 



METRES. 



[§ 293. 



are allowed as equivalents of the spondee. The comedians 
allow an anapaest to stand irregularly in the second part of the 
iambic dipody ; and even the tragedians allow this license in 
proper names. 

§ 293. The following are the most common iambic verses : — 

1. The monometer, — 

Mera ScoKparovs. 3 — ^, — (here ~ ~ — ^ — ) 

2. The dimeter (acatalectic and catalectic), — 



ZrjXoo o~e ttjs I €vj3ovK[as, 
Kai tov \6yov I top tJttco. 



3. The tetrameter catalectic, consisting of seven feet and a 
syllable, or of the two preceding verses combined, — 

Et7Tf/) rbv avbp | £>7rep/3aAei, || kcll firj yeXwr* | 6(j)\r)cr€is. 



A captain bold | of Halifax, || who lived in cotin|try quarters. 

4. The trimeter acatalectic, the most common of all iam- 
bic verses, in which most of the dialogue of the Attic drama is 
composed. It never allows any substitution in the last foot. 
With this exception it may have the tribrach in any place. The 
spondee can stand in the first place of every dipody. The tra- 
gedians allow the anapaest only in the first place, and the dactyl 
only in the first and third. The comedians allow the dactyl in 
all the odd places, and the anapaest (by comic license, § 292) in 
every place except the last. The most common caesura is that 
after the thesis of the third foot. 

The following scheme shows the tragic and the comic iambic 
trimeter compared, — the forms peculiar to comedy being en- 
closed in [ ]. 



[~~-] 



[_-] [_-] 



[— -] 



In general the tragedians avoid the feet of three syllables, 
even where they are allowed. The following are examples of 
both the tragic and the comic form : — ■ 



§ 295.] DACTYLIC VERSES. 213 

(Tragic.) X0OVOS fJL€P (Is | TT]\ovp6v rj\KO{JL€V TTtboV, 

2,kv6tjv is oi\fXOv, afiarov els | cprjfjLiav. 
"HcfxiicrTe, <to\ | 8£ XPI pcXciv | €7rio-roXa?. 
(Comic.) r Q Zeu ftcKTikeu' | to XPW a T ^ v \ vvkt^v qqtov 
'AnepavTov ouj^eVotf' f)p.€pa | yevrjaeTai ; 

A7T()XotO $T)T, J d) 7T0Xe/X£, 7ToX|Xo)I/ OVVCKd. 

And hope to mer|it Heaven by makjing Earth a He*lL 
For iambic systems see § 298. 

DACTYLIC YERSES. 

§ 294. The regular substitute for the dactyl is the spondee. 
Its other equivalent, the anapaest, is not allowed in dactylic 
verse ; although the dactyl is allowed in anapaestic verse (§ 296). 

§ 295. The following are the most common dactylic 
verses : — 

1. The dimeter, — 

MvaroftoKos d6p,os. _ w w | _ w ~ 

Molpa 8u»K€i, (Adonic). __ w w | _ ^ 

2. The trimeter (acatalectic and catalectic), — 

'AdvjjLcXr} Ke\adr)<T(o. -^^ |_^^|_ WN -* 

HapOivoi 6fjLJ3po(fi6poi _^^, I _^ w I r 

3. The tetrameter (acatalectic and catalectic), — 

Ovpaviois re fleols dcoprjfiara* w w | w w | *~"~ \ ^ — 

¥ E\0€T €7royjr6fi€Pai byvajiw, ^^ | _ ^ ^_ | __ w ^ | ^ 

4. The Heroic Hexameter, the Homeric verse. It always 
has a spondee in the last place, seldom in the fifth. The most 
common caesura (called heroic) is in the third foot, generally 
after the arsis. If it divides the thesis, it is called a feminine 
caesura. The caesura sometimes occurs after the arsis of the 
fourth foot. A verse-caesura at the end of the fourth foot is 
called bucolic, from its frequent occurrence in bucolic poetry. 

For examples see the Iliad and Odyssey. 

5. The Elegiac Distich consists of an heroic hexameter fol- 
lowed by the Elegiac pentameter. This pentameter consists of 
two dactylic trimeters catalectic (2), each containing two and a 



214 METRES. § 296. 

half feet (_/. w w j_ w w z.), and arose from a repetition of 
the first penthemim (five half-feet) of the hexameter. A caesu- 
ral pause always divides the two parts. The last two complete 
feet are always dactyls. The following is an Elegiac Distich: — 

Tis Se iSi'lo?, tl de | repTrvbv, a\v€V xpv(r£\r)$ y A(ppo\biTrjs ; 
Tedvai^rjv ore /xot II firjKeri I Tavra /LtejXot. 



Note. In the Homeric verse and in Lyric poetry, a long vowel 
or a diphthong is often shortened at the end of a word when the next 
word begins with a vowel. E. g. 

9 €l 7767701, I rj fiaka i drj /zere|/W\a;|cray 6eo\ I aWcos. 

Xpvo-eco a\va aKrj l 7TTpco, kcu eiXiaaeTO | TravTas *Aj xaiovs (§ 10). 

This sometimes occurs in the middle of a w r ord. Sometimes a 
short final vowel occurs in Homer where a long one is required by 
the verse. This can often be explained by supposing a following 
semi-vowel to have been doubled in pronunciation. Many anomalies 
in Homeric quantity are explained by the omission of Vau or Digam- 
ma (§ 1, Note 2) ; as tolov ot ( ) for toIov fol. 

ANAPAESTIC YEESES. 

§ 296. Anapaestic verses are measured by dipodies (§ 285, 

2). The spondee and the dactyl ( l and _ /, w ) may stand 

for the anapaest. The proceleusmatic ( w _ +, ^) occurs occa- 
sionally in comedy ; but generally a succession of four short 
syllables was avoided. 

§ 297. The following are the most common anapaestic 

verses : — 

1. The monometer, — 

Tponov alyv7U&v. ^^ — ^^ — 
Kal Befits alvelv. ^_ 

2vp.<p(OVOS OfXOV. ^^ 

2. The dimeter acatalectic, — 

Meyav U Bvp.ov \ Kka(ovres*Apr). ^^ — — — | — — w^ — 

OtT €K7TaTtOtS | «Xy€(Tl 7Tai$COV. _ __ — I — v ^ — — 

And the olive of peace || sends its branches abroad. 






§300.] CHORIAMBIC VERSES. 215 

3. The dimeter catalectic, or paroemiac, — 

*Hpav crrpaTLco^TLV dpcoydv. ww — | _ _ 3 

Ovtco 7rXourj7[(7er€ jrdpTcs. — - | ^^-3 

The Lord is advan||cmg. Prepare ye! __^-^-|ww-^-3 

4. The tetrameter catalectic, consisting of seven feet and a 
syllable, or of the two preceding verses combined. The prin- 
cipal verse-caesura is after the second dipody. 

Upoax^Tc top vovv J toI? dSavaroLs \\ rjp'tv, rots al\ev iovaiy 
Tols aWepiois, \ toi<tiv dyrjpcos, \\ Tols dcpdira p.r)\bop.£voi.<Tiv. 

§ 298. An anapaestic system consists of a series of anapaes- 
tic dimeters acatalectic, with occasionally a monometer, ending 
always with the paroemiac (or dimeter catalectic). These are 
very frequently employed in both tragedy and comedy. 

Iambic and trochaic systems are sometimes formed, on the same 
principle, of iambic or trochaic dimeters acatalectic, with occasionally 
a monometer, ending always with a dimeter catalectic. 

CHORIAMBIC VERSES. 

§ 299. The most common equivalent for the choriambus is 
the iambic dipody or diiambus, which very often alternates with 
the choriambus. The most common forms of catalectic chori- 
ambic verses are produced by dropping one, two, or three sylla- 
bles of a final iambic dipody. Thus, a choriambic dimeter may 
have the form _ w . w _ !_.___:_:. By dropping one syllable 
we have _ _ _ __ | _ _ — ,a dimeter catalectic in amphibrach yn ; 

by dropping two syllables we have ______ | w __, a dimeter 

catalectic in iambum ; and by dropping three syllables we have 
__ ^ w — I —, a dimeter catalectic in syllabam (or a monometer 
hyper catalectic, § 285, 3). 

§ 300. The following are examples of some of the most 
common choriambic verses : — 
Y^tfteSoi/|ra p.ev 6eov, — __ — _ — _ — dimeter acat. 

Zr)va Tvpav\vov is x°p° v — ~ — — L — — dimeter acat. 

Upcbra piyav \ kikXtjctkco • _ _ _, __ _ — 3 dim. catal. in amphibrachyn. 

Kai tov p.eya\(r6€vr}-Tpiai\vr)S rafxiav, 

C — _ _ I w — w— I __>_,_- trimeter acat. 

Vrjs re Kai a\\p.vpds 6a\dv\o"qs aypiov \ fioxXevrnv 

— w w — I w__w— | ; -'w^-| >- — 3 tetram. catal. in amphibrachyn. 



216 



METRES. 



[§ 301. 



Top 6* i7T7rova)\fxav, o? virep- w — 1 — wv^ — 

\dfl7TpOLS a.KTl\(TlV KaT€)(<EL 

Ttjs 7r€\dov, fxeyas iv | $eo7s — ^ 
*Ev 6vrj\Toi<rL T€ bai\iL(£>v. 

Of the last four verses, the third is a Glyconic, a dimeter catalectic 
in iambum, with a basis (§ 288, 1) ; the two preceding are variations 
of the G-lyconic, monometers with double basis ; and the last is a 
Pherecratic, a dimeter catalectic in syllabam, with a basis, or a Grly- 
conic shortened by one syllable. 



LOGAOEDIC YERSES. 

§ 301. 1. A verse beginning with dactyls and ending with 
trochees is called logaoedic. E. g. 

Mappape\\ais iv avyals, — ^ w ||— ^ -— 3 

Uap6ev€ Tap Ke(f>ci\ap ra 5' e||i>ep0e pvfx(pa. 



2. The same name is given to a verse beginning with ana- 
paests and ending with iambi. E. g. 

*Opyas €'8tSa|£aro Kcti || dvo-avXcop. ^ ^ — ^ — — || w — 3 

Zccftvpov | j ylyavros avpa. ^ ^ — 1| — — w — 3 



APPENDIX. 



CATALOGUE OF THE PEINCIPAL IEEEGULAE VEEBS. 

Note. This catalogue contains generally only the forms which are 
found in the strictly classic Greek before Aristotle. The few other forms 
are marked as later. All tenses which are not used by Attic writers are 
enclosed in [ ], except occasionally the present indicative of a verb which 
is Attic in other tenses. Some pure verbs which retain the short vowel of 
the stem (§ 106, N". 2) or which insert <r in the perfect and aorist passive 
(§ 113, N. 1), but are regular in other respects, — for example, reXew, — are 
not inserted. The simple stem (§ 107), when this does not appear in the 
present, is added in ( ) ; but when the simple stem is modified in certain 
tenses (not the present) by adding €, as in alo-ddvofmi, only the simpler 
form is given. A hyphen prefixed to a word (as -rjveKa) indicates that it 
occurs only in composition. This is omitted, however, if the simple form 
occurs even in later Greek. 

The imperfect or pluperfect is generally omitted when the present or per- 
fect is given. Very frequently also the future or aorist middle is omitted 
when the future or aorist active is given ; and the future passive, when the 
aorist passive is given. The catalogue, therefore, does not profess to indicate 
verbs which are defective in these tenses. 



"A^apai, admire, [Ep. fut. dydvofxai, rare,] -qydadyv, ^ya<rdfjL7jp. 

'AyyeXXco (dY7e\-), announce, dyye\Q [dyyeXeu], ijyyeika, jjyyeXm, ijyyeX- 

Imcli, 7}yy€\dr}v. Second aorists with X are rare or doubtful. 
\A.7€tpG> (dyep-), collect, a. ifyeipa ; [Ep. pip. p. dyrryeparo ; a. p. rryepOvv, 

2 a. m. dyepo/jLvv with part, dypo/uevos. ] 
\Ayvvju (Fay-), in comp. also dyvvu, break, &%u, 2a£a (rarely ^£<x), 

2 p. -taya [Ion. erjya], 2 a. p. edyrjv [Ep. #777*/]. 
"A-yw, lead, &&, ^a (rare), 9jxa (in comp.), fjy/uLai, iJx^W ) 2 a. ijyayoy, 

7ryay6fM7}i> ; iLfyfiai. (as pass.), [a. m. d^d/xrjy.] 
10 



218 APPENDIX. 

'AcCSw, sing, deicru and detVcyuu, ijeio-a. In Attic prose, a8a>, curo/un (cjurw, 

rare), rj aa, rjadrjp. 
'Actpw (dep-), take up, f. depQ, dpQ, a. ijeipa, rjepdnv ; [Horn. pip. p. dcopro 

for ijepro.] In Attic prose always aipw (d/o-), dp&, 9jpa, 9)pK.a, fjpfMii, 

Tjpdrjv ; dpovjmi, Tjpdfxrjv. Poetic 2 a. m. dpbfxnv. 
"At]|xi (de-), blow, inf. d?)rai, drjfxevai., part, decs ; imp. a^. Mid. aypLcu, 

imp. drjfxrjv. Poetic, chiefly Epic. 
AlSeop.cn, poet. at'Soyaat, respect, aldeo-o/mai, fjdecr/mi, ydecrd'nv, ydead/JLT)?. 

[Horn, imperat. aibelo, § 124, 2.] 
Alveto, praise, abecru [alvrjcrw], rjveaa [rjvrjcra], -yveKa, -tji/tj/jLcli, yvednv. 
Aip€co (eX-), take, alprjau, jjpvKa, rjprj/iai [Hdt. dpaiprjKa, dpaipn/JLatj, rjpedwv; 

fnt. pf. rtprjao/LLai (rare) ; 2 a. elXov, eXo) } &c. ; elXbixrjv, cXoo/jlcu, &c. 
Ai'po), Attic prose form of ddpu. 
AicrOdvofiai (alad-), perceive, aladrjcro/mi, rjadvjuai, ycrdb/xvy. Pres. aia-do/xac 

(rare and donbtfnl). 
['Aicaxi£ft> (^X"> ^ a X")> qfflict t dKaxwu, aKaxv™ \ p. dicdxyfuii, dicdKycrOai, 

aKaxwevos (or -efxevos) ; 2 a. iJKaxov, dKaxofinv. Epic] 
['Aicax|i6Vos, sharpened, Epic perf. part, with no present in use.] 
'Akovco (duo-), hear, dKovo-o/xat, iJKOvcra, 2 p. dicrjKoa [Dor. p. ct/cou/ca], ijKOij- 

adrjv, dK0vcrdr)<T0fJLai. 
'AXdop.cu, wander, p. dXdXrjfmi (as pres.), a. dXyd-ni/. Chiefly poetic. 
'AX8cuva> (dXd-), nourish, [Ep. 2 aor. ^X5az>o*>.] 

'AX€lc|>co (dXL<p-),anoi?it,dXeL\{/w,7JXeL\l/a, -dXrjXKpa (or -€L^a),dX-riXLfjL/JLai,7}Xei(p6r}V. 
'AXe'f-w (dXe«:-), ware? o^T, fat. [Ep. dXe£i)cr«] dXe^rjo-ofxat or aXe^o/mai ; aor. 

7}Xe%7)(ra (-i}\ei-a, rare), rfXe^d^-qv ; [Ep. 2 a. dXaXKOP for dX-aXe/c-o^.] 
['AXiopai, aw;'rf, Epic ; aor. ^Xed/^.] 
'AXevw, avert, dXevaoj, ijXevcra, rjXevd/uLfjv. 
'AXc'w, gnW, dXecw (dXcD), ijXeaa, dXrfXca-fiai or dXrjXefJLai. 
e AXicrKop.at (dX-, dXo-), 6e captured, dX(b<rojULai, tjXukcl or edXw/ca, 2 aor. 

TJXwj/ or edXuv, dXcD [Epic dXcow], dXoinv, dX&vai, dXotfs. All pas- 
sive in meaning. Ko active dXtV/cw, but see dv-aXicri«o. 
'AXiTpaivw (dXtr-), sm, 2 aor. ijXirou, [dXtrbfJLnv.] Mid. &XiTeuvop.cu [perf. 

part. dXirrj/jLevos, sinning]. Chiefly Epic. 
'AXXdcrcrw (dXX<z7-), change, dXXd£co, &c. regular ; 2 a. p. rjXXdyyv. 
"AXXop.cu (dX-), leap, dXov/uuti, rjXdfjLrjv ; 2 a. riXdfi-nv (rare). [Epic 2 a. dX<ro, 

dXro, aX/ji€i>os, by syncope. § 122, 2.] 
'AXvo-ko) (dXvK-), avoid, dXv^oj and aXv^opLai, fjXvfa (rarely -afirjy). 
'AXc|>dvw (dX0-), ^no 7 , acquire, [Epic 2 aor. ^X<£oj\] 
'ApapTavw (dfiapr-), err, d/JLaprrjo-o/JLcu, -^/xdpr^/ca, ^[xaprnfiai, nqixdpri\Qy\v ; 

2 aor. ij/jLapTov [Ep. -fj/jfiporov]. 
'Ap.(3X{(TKa> (d/j.j3X6u in compos.), miscarry, [d/x/3Xc6(7w, late,] ^3Xw<7a> 

-tffjipXuKa, -ij/uL(3XufjLai, -qix^Xihdnv. 



CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 219 

'Ajxeipto and dp.€p8a> (d/mep-), deprive, -fjfjLepcra, ramepdrju. Poetic. 

'Ap.7r-^x w an d dpu^to-xw {dfM(pi and txw), wrap about, clothe, d/>u/>e£w, 2 a. 

ij^iriaxop. Mid. dfxirexo^aL, dpLTriaxo/JLat, dfxir L<Jxveop.ai ; imp. rjfxireixo- 

fiTjv, 2 a. rjfiTTLaxojuLTjv and rifxireaxo^v. 
'A|nrXaKtorKw (d/*7rXa/c-), en', m?'ss, ^/xTrXd/cT/^aat ; 2 a. ijfiirXaKOP, part, dyu- 

tt\<xk<Jov or dirXaKibu. Poetic. 
['Ajiirvvw, Epic for dvairveu, take breath, only in a. p. dixwvvvd-qv, and a. m. 

afxirvvTO for d/x7n>tfeTO.] 
'A|j4i-yvo€io, oom&£, r}/A<piyi>6eoj> and 7]{X(peyvbeov, Tj/jupeyvorjea ; aor. pass. part. 

d/jL<piyj>07)d€is. See § 105, 1, Note 3. 
*An<|>i-€VVV|u (see hnnifu], clothe, tut. [Ep. d^tecw] Att. -d/*0tw ; ^Leaa, 

7)iu,<pLe(T/j.ai, d/j,<pi€<rafjLT}i> (poet.). 
'Afi<j>tcrpT|T€w, dispute, augmented t^ict- and rjfx^ea-. 
'Avcuvojiai (dra^-), re/i/se, imp. rivaivofx-qv, aor. rjvqvdfnjv. 
'AvaXio-Kw and dvaXow, expend, dv&Xuau, dvdXuxra and d^Xwcra (kcit- 

T^dXcoo-a), d^dXw/ca and dviqXuKa, dvdXufMu and dvrjXupLcu, drnXud-nv and 

dv7}Xd)dy}v, dvaXwdrjaofxai. 
'AvSdvco (Fa5-, d5-), /?/ease, d5i}<7«, [2 p. Epic erd&i,] 2 a. 'iaBov and tfSov 

[Epic etfa5o*/, eFa5oj>]. Ionic and Poetic. 
'Avexco, holdup; see exw, and § 105, 1, Note 3. 
'Av-ofyvvju and dvoi-yo) (see oiyvvfAi), open, imp. dvtcpyov [Epic dp<?7oj>] ; 

dvoi%(j), dvecptja (ijvoi^a, rare) [Hdt. avot^a], dvecpx^, dpeyy/xai, dvecpx^W 

(subj. dvoixOw, &c.) ; fut. pf. dve^o^at. 
'Av-op0oo>, s<tf upright, augm. dvup- and ^wp-. § 105, 1, Note 3. 
'Avctyco, o?*o?er, exhort, imp. fywyov ; dvu%u, ijvoj^a ; 2 p. dvuya (as pres.), 

with imperat. dvoLxOh dv&xOu, dvcox^ € - I° n i c an d Poetic. 
('Air-avpdtt), ta£e away, not found in present ; imp. dir-qvpuv ; a. m. d7r?7u- 

/od^z/ (?); aor. part, dirovpas, dirovpdfMevos. Poetic. 
'AirexGdvojiai (ex#-), 6e Aatea 7 , direxQMoixai, dirrjxOw^ ', 2 a. dw-qx^W- 
*Audxpii, it suffices, impersonal. See XP 1 !' 
'Apapio-K« (dp-), Jit, fjpaa, -fjpdrjv ; 2 p. dpdpa ; 2 a. ijpapov ; 2 a. m. part. 

dpixevos (as adj.), fitting. 
'Ap€O"K0> (d/oe-), please, dpe<rw, -rjpeaa, rjp£<j6r}v. 
'Ap[Lol<a or dpjioTTco [Ion. apfido-croj], fit, dpfioau, ijpjULO<Ta [avv-dpfio^a Pind.], 

TJpflOKa, TJpfJLOCTfJLCU, T)p\XQ<j67)V ', 7]p/UL0adfJL7)V. 

'Apow, plough, -fjpoaa, [p. p. Ion. dp-qpofxai,'] i)pb6nv. 

'Apird^w (dpiray-), seize, dpirdaco and dp7rdcro/xcu [Ep. dpird^w], ripiraaa [tfp- 

Tra^a], rjpiraKa, rjpiracrfxai, rfpirdad^v [Hdt. j)pTrdxQf)v\ 
'Av^dvto or atf|a> (avtje-), increase, av^rjaoj, -qv^-qaa, rjv^rjKa, Tjij^-n/mai, rjv^rjd^v. 
'A^-iTjfJii, let go, imp. d<$>-ir\v (or i?0-); fut. dcp-rjau, &c. See § 129. 
w AxOop.ai (dx6e-), be displeased, dxQevoficu or dx^ead-qdoixaL, rjxOeo-drjp. 



220 APPENDIX. 



Bdjco ((3ay-), speak, utter, -fia&, [p. p. Ep. fiepaKTai]. 

Baivo) {^a-}, go, (3r)(ro[Aa(. (poet, except in comp. ), pefi-qKa, -(3e(3afmi, -ipddrjp 

(rare); 2 a. e/V (like eaT-rjv) ; 2 p. (/3e/3aa) (3e(3Q, &c. (§ 130, 1); 

[a. m. Ep. €(37)cr&fjL7]v (rare) and i^rjao/jL-qv]. In active sense, cause to go, 

poet. prj<Tu, epTjcra. 
BdXXw (£aX-), /Arow, f. [/SaXe'w] /3aXu> (rarely ^aXX^w), ^Xtjkol, p^X-qfmi. 

[Ep. /3e/36X?7/x.cu], ipXrjdTjv ; 2 a. tpaXov, €f3aX6fJLrjp ; fut. m. fiaXovfrni ; 

fut. pf. (3€(3\r)0-o/j,ai, [2 a. m. Ep. i^Xrjfxrjv.] 
Bippwo-Kco (/3/30-), eotf, p. pefipwKa, p^pu/xat, [£(3pudr)v ; 2 a. 2/3/?wj> ; fut. pf. 

PeppdxrofjLai] ; 2 p. part. £e/3/>c£s (§ 130, 1). 
Btow, live, ^nbaojmai, iftiucra (rare), fiepiwKa, (/3e/3iw/«u) /3e/3i wrcu ; 2 a. ^8twi» 

(like eVwv, § 127, Note 1). 
Bi<6crKO|iai, revive, e^LOjadjxrjv. 

BXa-irrw (/3Xa/3-), ew/wre, pXd\j/w, &c. regular ; 2 a. p. ifiXdpTjv. 
BXaordvft) (jSXcurr-), sprout, (3Xa<TTr}(ru, &c. ; 2 a. £fiXa<TTov. 
BX£iro>, see, pXtxpoficu [Hdt. -/3X(ty w], e/3Xe^a. 

BXwo-kw (mo^-> Mo-, £Xo-), f. fjLoXov/jLcu, p. ^te,a/3Xw/ca, 2 a. ZpoXov. Poetic. 
Bodco (/3o-), sfto«Z, porjaoficu, £(36r]<Ta. [Ion. -ftdxropicu, ej3u<ra, (/3^/3w/acu) /3e- 

pufAevos, £(3ibcrd7]i>.] 
BoVkw (/3o<r/ce-), v /eec?, (3o<rfcr}(T0j. 
BovXofxcu (/3ouXe-), w*7/, w^'s/i (augm. £{3ovX- or -qpovX-); fiovX-qaofxaL, /3e/3oi/- 

X-qfMai, e(3ovXr)dr)v ; 2 p. irpo-fiefiovXa, prefer. 
Bpv\do[J.ai {Ppvx-), roar, p. (3e(3pvxa ; ippvxyv&firjv ; PpvxyOeis. 

r. 

rafiiw (7^-), w*arry (said of a man), f. 7a/^co fya^w], a. eyrj/m, p. 7e7<£- 

^77/ca, yey&wpxiL ; a. m. iy-qpLd/xrjp. Mid., marry (said of a woman). 
rcyo)V€w (7w*>-), sfotff, 7e7wi>?7(ra;, (eyeydov-qva) yeyuvrjaai ; 2 p. yeyuva, 

subj. yeydjvta, imper. 7e7wj>e, [inf. yeywue/xev, part. 7670^5.] 
rcivop.cu (7e^-), 6e 6orw ; a. eyewdpL-qv, begat. 
rcXdo), /autfA, yeXdo-ofiat, iyeXaaa, iyeXdcrdrjv. 

Tr\Q4<a (yrjd-), rejoice, [yq6r}<Tco, iy^drjaa ;] 2 p. yeyqda (as pres.). 
r^pdo-Kco and yrjpdw, grow old, yqpdaoo and y-qpacro/uLcu, iyrjpdaa, yey rjpdKa 

{am old) ; 2 a. (iy-qpav) [eyrjpa Horn.], inf. y-qpdvai, pt. yrjpds. 
Ttyvopai and -yivopcu (7ev- § 108, 8), become, yzvr\<jop.ai, yeyev-q/xai, [eyev-q- 

6-qv Dor. and Ion.] ; 2. a iyevopL-qu [Ep. 76/T0 for e7&>ero] ; 2 p. ytyova, 

am, poet. (7e7aa) § 130, 1, Note 1. 
riyvwa-Kw (7^0-), nosco, know, yvdocro/xaL, [Ion. dv-iyvuaa,'] eyvuKa, eyvuxr/xcu, 

kyv<h<jd-qv ; 2 a. eyvuv, perceived. § 127, ISTote 1. 
rpdcf)w, itriVe, ypd\pu, &c. regular ; 2 a. p. iypdcprjv (iypd<p&7]i> is not classic). 






CATALOGUE OF VERBS 221 



A. 



(Aa-), no present, teach, learn, [5arj(ro/xcu, 8e8dt]Ka, SeSdnfmi, 2 p. (6V6aa) 

§ 130, 1; 2 a. SeSaov or eSaov,] 2 a. p. iSd-qu. Chiefly Epic. 
Acuvvficu (dai-), feast, dai<rco, edaiaa, (idaicrdrjv) 8aia6eis, €5cu<t&/jlt)v. Chiefly 

poetic. 
Acuop-cu (da-), divide, [Ep. Sdeofxai,'] dedacrfxai [Ep. didatfiai], idaadfXTjv. 
AaCoi (da-), kindle, [Ep. 2 p. dedrja ; 2 a. U8a6/xr)v) subj. SdrjTat.] 
Acikvco (8clk-, 8tjk-), bite, 8r)^ofxat, dedriy/jLcu, idrjxQyv ; 2 a. eSaKOv. 
Aajid^o) [8afx-, 8/ulcl-), tame, subdue, [Ep. fut. dafxQ (for dajudau), Sajuidcro-ofjuxi,] 

eSdfxaaa, \8i8fX7jfxaL, ] i8ap.dadr)P and ibfxrjdrfv ; fut. pf. ScS^r/cro/mL ; 2 a. p. 

€8dfJL7)v. 
AapOdvo) (8ap0-), sleep, 2 a. edapOov, poet. eSpatiov ; p, KaTa-dedapdrjK&s ; 

KaT-e8dpdf]v (later). 
Aei8w (8ei-, 8i-), fear, Selo-ofxai, cdetaa, 8e8oiKa [Ep. 8d8ouca]. From stem 

&-, 2 p. 6Vota [Ep. SelSia]. § 130, 1, Note 2. 
AcCkwjii (da/c-), sAow?; see § 126. [Ion. -6V£a>, -£5e£a, -Qtdeyiuii (Ep. 5ef- 

5c7/wti), 'idtyPw']- 
Ae'poa, ^m/, 5ep<S, ebetpa, 8e8apfxai ; 2 a. eddpTjv. 
Ai\ioi (8 fie-), build, e8eifxa, [dtd/irjfiai], eSeLfidpLTju. Chiefly Ionic. 
AepKopeu (5/oa-), see, i8epx0rjv ; 2 a. e8paicov, (£8pdK7)v) Spqicels ; 2 p. 848opKa 

(§ 109, 1). 
Actional (6Vfe-), Epic for diofiai. See 81a), wan* 
A£\opcu, receive, 8e£o/j,cu, 6VoVy/*at [Horn. dVxarat f° r Se^xarat], i84x^V v t 

£8ei;djj,7)P ; fut. pf. SeSe^ofmi ; 2 a. in. chiefly Epic (484yfx-qv) 84xro t 

imper. 6V£o, inf. 84x^oli, part, dey/mevos (sometimes as pres. ). 
A£a>, bind, drjcrw, tdrjaa, 5e5e/ca (rarely BedrjKa), SeSefxai, i84drjv ; dedtfo-ofiai. 
Aio [See-), want, need, derja-cj, ideyjcra [Ep. ZSrjcra,] 8e84r]Ka, dediypLai, iSerjdTjv. 

Mid. deoftai, ask. From Epic stem Sev- or 5eue- come [edeurjcra (once in 

Horn.), and devofmi, devrjao/jLai]. Impersonal 8€i, debet, there is need, 

(one) ought, derjaet, iderjae. 
AiSdcrKco (didax-)t teach, 8idd%cj, idida^a [ediddo'KTjo'a], dedLdaxa, dediday/xai, 

ididdxOrjv. 
Ai8pd<rK«(opa-), only in comp., run away, -dpaffofiai, -dedpaxa ; 2 a. -edpdv 

[Ion. edprjv], -5/o<3, -Spairju, -dpavcu, -8pd$. 
A(8a>p.i (do-), give, 5t6<rw, eduKa, dV6Wct, &c. ; see § 126. [Ep. do/xevai or 

86/jl€v for 8ovvcu.~\ 
(ACa>), 8e8ta ; see deidcj. 
Aok€(i> (8ok-), seem, think, 86£u), edo^a, 8e8oy/jL<u, iSSx^yv (rare). Poetic So- 

k7)<tu), &c. regular. Impersonal, Sokcl, if seems, &c. 
Apdco, do, 8pd<ru), eSpdaa, 8e8pdKa f 848pd/xai (rarely 84§paafj,ai), (£8pdcr07}p) 

SpaaOcls. 



222 APPENDIX. 

Avvafj.cn, be able, augm. edvv- and 7)8vv- ; cWt/cto/xcu, dedforjfjuu, i8vvq$Tjv 

(rarely iSvvdo-drjv), [Ep. iSwrjcrdfinv. ] 
Avvw (oV), enter ; 2 a. e5w. See § 126. 
Avco, cause to enter, Svctoj (v), edvaa, dedvKa, SedvfJLai, idvOrjp (u) ; a. m. idvad- 

fXTjp [Ep. edvao/M-qu, inflected as 2 aor.]. 

E. 

'Edo> [Ep. e/aw], permit, idcrw, eidca [Ep. eatra], eta/ca, eta/mi, ddOrjv ; idao- 
fxai (as pass.). 

'E«yyud(«>, proffer, betroth, augm. 9777U- or ei/eyu- (e77e7u-). § 105, 1, Notes 2,3. 

'E-ystpo) (e7 e />-)» raise, rouse, iyepQ, ijyeipa, iyrryepfjim, rjyepOfjp ; 2 p. iyp'rj- 
yopa, am awake [Horn. iyprfyopBaet, eyprryopde (for -opacri, -opare), inf. 
eyprjyopdai or -opdai] ; 2 a.m. rrypoixr\v [Ep. typbix-qv.'] 

"E8<o, ea£, see €<r0uo. 

"Ejofiat, s#, see KaOl^ojiai and i"£o>. 

'EOlXw and Qikta (edeXe-), wish, edeX-qaw, ^OeXrjaa, 7)6eXr)Ka. 

'EOi^w, accustom, kdiaio, eWi<ra, eidifca, eWiCfxai, ddiadrjv. 

"E0«, be accustomed, 2 p. eiwda [Ion. #w0a], as present. 
El8ov (i'5-, Ft5-), vid-i, saw, 2 aor., no present ; (l8oj, tdoifu, ide or 184, IBeiv, 
i8&v.) Mid. (chiefly poet.), eiSofxat, seem, [Ep. elo-d/nrjv ;] 2 a. elddfirp, 
saw, == eI6V. OI8a (2 pf. as pres.), &/20W, pip. rjdeiv, knew, f. efooiiai ; 
see § 130, 2. 

(EI'kg>) not used in pres. (Ik-, cIk-, oIk-), resemble, appear, imp. eUov, f. ef£w 
(rare), 2 p. goiKCt [Ion. oka] (with eotynev, [clktop,] ei£d<rt, dicfyai, et/cws, 
chiefly poetic); 2 pip. eymiv [with l&rip], ILpo<rr}T£cu, art like [and Ep. 
4frn> or tiW), sometimes referred to i'/vr/cw. Impersonal &hk€, it seems, &c. 

(Eft*)) not used in pres. (eX-, dX-), ro/Z w/>, /^ess together, [a. e'Acra.] [Pass. 

ctXoptu, p. eeXfiai, 2 a. idX-qv or dX^.j Epic. 
Eljit, &e, and EtfJti, go. See § 129, I. and II. 

Mirov (|tt-), said, [Ep. Iron*,'] 2 aor., no present ; (eft™, efrrot/w, eM 
[Ep. imp. 60-7rere], cfcre??, dir&v) ; 1 aor. ftTra (opt. eiiraLfn, imper. eftrcw 
or eiirov, inf. elTrat, pt. e^as), [Hdt. &w-€twdfLTp>.°i Other tenses are sup- 
plied by Horn, etpw (ep-), and a stem pe-: f. ipew, epu ; p. efpyKa, etprjpui ; 
a. p. ipp-fjOyv, rarely eppifflip' [Ion. elped-nv] ; fut. pass. prjdfoofAcu ; fut. pf. 
elp-fjcro/jLcu. See 4v€iro). 
E'lpopiat (Ion.), as£, dpif/trofini ; see gpofj.au 
Eipco (ep-), so?/, Epic in present. See ctirov. 
Ei'po) (t-p-), sero, join, a. -elpa [Ion. -ep<ra], p. -eTptca, etpfiai [Ep. eepjuat]. 

'EKK\T]<rid^(o, ca// aw assembly (eKKk-qala) ; augm. tjkkXt)- and eife/cX^-. 

'EXavvo), poet. eXaV (eX-, eXa-), rfnue, march, f. iXdau, eXQ ; i}Xa<ra, eXi}- 
Xa/ca, eXrjXajJLcu [Ion. and late -aer/xai], rjXddnv. 



CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 223 

'EX€YX W > confute, iXeyfa, tfXeyfr, eXrjXey/uLai (§ 113, Note 3), yjXiyxQriv. 
"EXkw (late £\kijw), pull, eX^u (rarely eXKvaco), eiXitvaa, ei'X/cf/ca, ei'X/cuoy-icu, 

eiXKvadrjv. 
["EXirco, cause to hope, 2 p. eoXira, hope. Mid. tXiroficu (ieXw-), hope. Epic.] 
s E}jnroXda>, traffic, epLTroXrjcrw, &c. regular. Augm. Tjfxw- or evep.Tr-. 
'Evatpw (evap-), kill, [Ep. a. m. evrjpdpLVP,] 2 a. ijvapov. Poetic. 
'Evc'irco or evv€ira>, say, tell, [Ep. f. ivi\f/io and evLGirrjo-u,'] 2 a. eviGirov. Poetic. 
'Evitttco [Ep. evi(T(Tu>], chide, [Ep. 2 a. evevarov and ^n7ra7ro^.] 
"Evvvju (e-, re-), ves-tio, clothe, pres. act. only in comp. [f. eWw, a. eWa, 
p. co-yaat] or et]ucu ; [eVcd/x?^.] In comp. -eVw, -eVa, -iadfxrjj/. Chiefly 
Epic : dfKpL-evwfjLL is the common form in prose. 
'Euavpcca and liravpio-KW (both rare), enjoy, f. eiravp-qaofxai, a. eirnvpa^-qv, 

2 a. iirrjvpo/iirjv [Dor. and Ep. eVaO/Dop.] Chiefly poetic. 
'EirCo-Tajxai, understand, imp. ^-Kiard^v, f. ewLaTrjaofmi, a. rjiria-T^dnv. 

(Not to be confounded with forms of e<f>i<TTr){u. ) 
"Eirco (<re7r-), oe q/ter or 6wsz/ io#A, imp. elirov, f. -ei/'w, 2 a. -ecnrov (for e-aeir- 
ov), [a. p. irepL-ecpdnv Hdt.,] — all chiefly in comp. Mid. &irop.cu, follow, 
expo/mat, ; 2 a. e<JTrbp.r\v, awLo/mai, &c. 
'EpYa£ofi.ai, wor&, e?o, augm. elp-, ipydcopLcu, eipyao-fAcu, elpydaOnv, elpya- 

(rdfirji/. 
"EpSw and gp8w (Fepy-), work, do, ep£u, ep£a, [Ion. 2 p. eopya]. Ionic and 

poetic. See pi £g>. 
'EpciSw, prop, epetVw (later), ijpeicra, [-ijpeLKa, iprjpeKT/Acu with eprjpedaTai and 

-aro,] rjpeicrdrjv. 
*Ep€iKa) {epLK-), tear, burst, ijpeiKa, ep-qpiypiai, 2 a. ijpiKov. 
'Epeiirw (epnr-), throw down, ipeL\j/u, 7)pei\j/a, [ep-qpiwa, have fallen, iprjpifjLfjLai], 

'fjpelcfrdrjj' ; [2 a. ijpnrov, 7}pLirr}v.~\ 
'Ep€<r<ra> (e/>e-), s«n'A;e, row, [Ep. aor. ifpeaa.] 
"Epojiai (rare or ?) [Ion. cipojjicu, Ep. €pe'w or Iplopai], fut. ipr)<ro[Mi [Ion. 

€lpr)<rofmi], 2 a. rjpo/uLvv. 
"Eppw (eppe-), go to destruction, epp-qcjb), ^pp-qaa, -ijppnKa. 
'Ep\>YYdvco (e>iry-), eruct, 2 a. ifpvyov. [Ion. epetiyoficu, ipe^ofrnt.] 
'EpvKw, AoZc? oac&, [Ep. f. eptifa,] ijpv^a, [Ep. 2 a. rjptKaKov.] 
"Epxo|icu (eXu0-, eXevd-), go, come, iXe\j<rofji.ai, 2 p. eX-rjXvda [Ep. eX^Xovda 
and ei'X^Xouflci], 2 a. 17X00*/ (poet. ifKvdov). In Attic prose, eZ>u is used 
for eXevao/jLcu (§ 200, Note 3). 
'E<r0i(o (e5-, (f>ay-), eat, fut. £5oj«m, p. idrjdoKa, edrjdeo-fjun [Ep. e5i}5o/*ai], 

t)UgQt)v ; 2 a. e^ayov ; [Ep. 2 p. part. eo^Sws.] 
'"Ea-Tidia, feast, augment elan- (§ 103). 

EuSco (evde-), sleep, evdrjcroj [-evdvo-a]. Commonly in Ka0-€v8co. 
Evpio-Kco (evp-), find, evp-qau), evpyjKa, etipnfxcu, evpednv ; 2 a. edpov, evpbfxnv. 
Sometimes augmented nvp-. 



224 APPENDIX. 

"Ex w (^X-)* have, imp. etxov ; e£w or <rxh™, e<rxyKa, "(rxwai, 4(Tx^V v 
(chiefly Ion.); 2 a. €<tx oj/ (f° r e-°" e X" 0, ')> ^X^* crxoiyv (-axoi/xi), <r%es, 
<rx e ^ v i c X^ v i poet, eax^^ov, &c. [Hom. p. part, cup-oxo/ccus]. Mid. ^\°" 
jiai, cling to, e£o/-ocu and Gxh^o\io.i, iaxo^rjv. 

"E\|/w (e^e-), Coo&, e^cw and e^ijao/xaL, 7J\f/r](Ta, [rj^-qfxai, i]\j/rj67}v.] 



Zaw, /we, § 123, Note 2. Imperf. e£aoz> and ef^ ; £?)Vw, &c. 

Z€vywp.i (^*u7- cf. jug-um), yoke, ffetffw, e$ev%a, efcvy/jLcu, e^xOyv; 2 a. p. 

££vyqv. 
Z<avvv\ki (£b-), gird, efa&a, Zfafffxai, e^uaafMyv. 



'Hjiai, sit (perf. from stem £-), chiefly in K&d-rjixat ; plup. (as imp.) ^fiyv;. 

3 pers. sing, ijarai. and 770-7-0 (in comp. also t)tcu, t^to) ; ac<x0-w/«u, kclO- 

oifATjv, 77V0, ijadai (Kad-rjadcu), jjfjLevos. [Ion. eiarcu. or earcu, etaro or 

earo, for fjvrai, ?)vto.~\ See l'£o>. 
*H|ii, sa#, chiefly in imperf. t> 5' e7c6, sairf /, and fj 5' 6'y, said he (§ 151, 

Note 3). [Epic 9j (alone), he said.] *H/«, I say, colloquial. 



0. 

GaXXo) (6a\-), bloom, 2 perf. reOrfka (as present). 

0dirro> (Oacp-), ktry, da\j/u, edaipa, redafifxaL, [Ion. £0&<p97)v, rare;] 2a. p. 

€t&4>t]v ; 2 fnt. Tacp-qo-ofJutL ; fut. pf. T€0&\{/ofxcu. 
0€ivco (fle?-), s?m£e, fle^o), etfeira ; 2 a. edevov. 
0€\o>, w;?*sA, 6e\rjcru), £0£\Tj(ra (not in indie. ) ; see IGeXco. 
0€o> (#ev-), run, fut. devaofxai. 

0iyydva> (0tY-), ^omcA, OIZo/jlcu or TeOi£ojULai (?), 2 a. edcyov. 
0vt)<tkcd (0cu>-), cfre, davovfmi, rid^Ka ; fut. pf. redv^u) (§ 120, Note) or 

reSv^ofmi ; 2 a. etfavcw ; 2 p. (redvaa) § 130, 1, part. reOveus [Horn. 

retfj'Tjcus]. In Attic prose always airo-davoviiai and dir-edavov. 
0pvirra> (dpv<f>-), crush, -20pv\f/a, rtOpvfxnai, edpticpdrjv [Ep. 2 a. p. -iTpfyrjv]. 
0p(oo*K(i> (#00-), Zeap, fut. dopovfxai, 2 a. edopov. 
0vo> (u), sacrifice, imp. e'0uo*> ; 0u(ra; (u), edvaa, tcOvkcl, reOvfiat, injdrjp (v), 

£6v(rdfjLr]v. See § 17, 2, Note. 
0vo) or 0vv« (u), rage, rush. Poetic : classic only in pres. and imperfect. 



CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 225 

I. 

•IaXXw (taX-), send, fut. -taXw, [Ep. aor. fyXa.] 

"I|a> (ifc-), seat or s#. Mid. i^ojiai and ^op.cu (id- for <re5-, cf. sed-eo), sit, 

used chiefly in KaO-ifa, which see. Ion. and poet. aor. elaa or -eaa 

(from stem e), with eiadfjLrjv [or ea-adjuLrjv (ieaa-) ; fut. inf. e0-eWe<r#at 

Horn.] See ^ fiat. 
"Itjiw (e-), send; see § 129, III. § 121, Note 2. Fut. m. -fro/Mi, [dv- 

iuvrai for dp-eivTcu, Hdt.] 
'Ikv€Oucu (poet, i/cw), come, i^ofxac, Ty/mai ; 2 a. Udfirjit. In prose usually 

dcf>-LKV€Ofm<.. From t'/cw [Ep. imp. I/cop, 2 a. l£ov]. 
'IXd<TKop.at [Ep. IXdofjLai], propitiate, IXdaoucu, i\d<rdr)v, l\a<rdfnjv. 
"Iirraixai, fly, imperf. IwrdpLrju ; see ir^TOixai. 
'Io-ttijxi (o-ra-), set, place; see § 126. Fut. pf. e(m}fu (§ 120, Note) and 

€(TT7)%oimi. Perf. &rr?7/ca, with (&rraa), ecrraj, ecrrairju, &c. (§ 130, 1), 

stand; 2 aor. eo-rrjv, stood. The 1 aor. Zarrjo-a is transitive, placed. 



Ka0-€£o|A<H (e5-), siit down, imp. iKadetffirjv, f. KadedovfAcu. 

Ka0t£w, se£, s&, f. /catftu) (for Kadiau), Kadc^rjaofxaL ; a. e/cdfltcra, iKadiadfiijv ; 

Kddrjfxai, see %ai. 
KaCvvp.au (/cad-), exceZ, p. /c^/caovxat [Dor. /ce/caS-zaei'os]. 
KaCvw (/cai>-), A;///, f. /ca^u), 2 a. €kolvov, 2 p. kckovol. 
KaCw (/cau-), or kcuo, ourn; /camera;; e/caucra, poet, e/cea [Ep. e/c^a] ; -/c^/cau/ca, 

KeKavfjLCLL, €Kav0r}v, [2 a. e/cd?7J/.] 
KaXeo> (/cXe-), ca//, f. /caXw (rarely Ka\t<rw) ; e/cdXecra, /c<?/cX77/ca, k4k\tiimi 9 

iKX-ndrju ; fut. m. KaXov/mi ; fut. pf. /ce/cXTfa-o/uu. 
Kduva) (/ca/*-), /a&or, icafwvpai, /ce/c^/ca [Ep. part. /ce/c^u>s] ; 2 a. e/ca/xo*>. 
KeSavvvui, Ep. for (TKeMvvvpu, scatter, [e/cedacra, eKcddadrjv.] 
Kciuai, Zie, Kelvopuu ; see § 129, Y. 
K€tpa> (/ce/)-), sAear, f. /ceptD, a. e/cetpa (poet, c/ce/oca), K^apfmi, [(Mpdyv) Kep- 

0ds ; 2 a. p. eicd/D^ ;] f. m. Kepov/JLcu, a. m. eiceip&firpr (w. poet. part. 

/ce/ocrd/xej'os). 
KcWco (/ceX-), Zanrf, /c£Ww, e/ceX(ra. Poetic. 
KeXoaai (/ceXe-), orc/er, [Ep. /ceX^cro^ai, €K€\7)<rdjj,T)v] ; 2 a. m. K€K\6firjv or 

€K€K\6fJL7]v (§ 122, 1). Chiefly Epic. 
Kcpdvvuui (/ce/oa-), miar, e/c^paca [Ion. e/cp?7<ra], /c^/c/od^at [Ion. -^at], tKpddnv 

[Ion. -?7077*>] and eKepdad-rjv ; f. pass. KpadrjaopLac. 
KcpSaivo) (/cep5az>-), grain, f. KepbavQ [Ion. Kepddu and /cepS^cro/xai], eKepddva 

[Ion. -T^a or -ifffa], KeK^pdrjKa. 
KevSco (/cu0-), Aicfe, /cetfo-w, [-e/cefcra ;] 2 p. /c6ceu0a (as pres.) ; [Ep. 2 a. kMo?, 

subj. K€/«/0a>.] 



226 APPENDIX. 

Ktj8o) (ko.8-, KtjSe-), vex, [K7]8rj(T(x3, -iK-qdrjo-a ; 2 p. k4ktj8o]. Mid. K-qdofMU, 

sorrow, eK-qbead^v, [Ep. fut. pf. K€Ka8r)(rofxcu.] 
Ki\dvo) (iax-),Jind, Kix^o/xai, [Ep. eKixv^^M^] '■> 2 a. kiuxov [and €klxw]> 
Kl\pr)\Li (Kpa-), lend, [xpV™ H-dt.], expyva, KexpW™ I expncrdfx-qv. 
KXd^w (/cXa77-, /oWy-), c/aftjgr, K\dy%u, eKXay^a ; 2 p. KeKXayya [Ep. /ce/cX??- 

7a] ; 2 a. tnXayov ; fut. pf. Keick&yi-ofjLai. 
KXaico and kXcIco (/cXau-), weep, KXavcro/xai (rarely KXaaovixai, sometimes 

K\aL7)(TQj or KXarjcrw), fKXavaa, KCKXav/mai ; fut. pf. (impers. ) /ce/cXawrercu. 
KXeia), s/*w£, /cXeitra;, e/cXe*tra, /ce/cXetyaat or KeKXeia/uLai, eKXeiadTjv. [Ion. pres. 

KXtj uo, €K\r)L(ra, KeKXrfifAcu, eKX-qlad-qv or iKXrjidrjv.] Older Attic KXtjw, 

/cXtJctoj, e/cXflcra, -KeKXrjKa, /ce/cX^at, -eKXrjad-qv. 
KXeiTTW (/cXe7r-), stea/, /cXe^w (rarely KXtyopui), tKXe\f/a, /ce/cXo0a, /ce/cXe/^aat, 

(eKXecpdrjv) K\e(pdeLs ; 2 a. p. eKXdinjv. 
KXivo), fend, mc/me, KXtycD, e/cXlkt, [/ce/cXc/ca, later,] KeKXi/xcu, e/cXi07?*> [Ep. 

€k\Iv6tiv] ; 2 a. p. eKXivrjv. § 109, Note 1. 
KXvw, Aear, imp. l/cXi^ (as aor.) ; 2 a. imper. /cXO0t, /cXi5re [Ep. k£kXv6i, 

k€k\vt€]. Poetic. 
Kope'vvvfu (/co/oe-), satiate, [f. Kopetru Hdt., xropew Horn.,] eKopeaa, KeKopeajixcu 

[Ion. -?7A«u], eKopeo-drjp ; [Ep. 2 p. pt. zee /cop 7706s.] 
Kpd£<o (/cp<z7-), en/ ou£, fut. pf. K€Kpd^o/mi (rare), 2 pf. KeKpdya (imper. kc- 

KpaxOt), 2 a. -eKpayov. 
Kpaivw (Kpav-), accomplish, KpavCj, e/cpdVa [Ion. e/c/OT^a], kKpdvQr\v ; p. p. 

3 sing. K€Kpavrai (cf. 7re<pavrai, § 113, Note 4). Ionic and poetic. 

[Epic Kpaiaivto, aor. €Kpr)7]va, pf. and pip. KeicpdavTcu and Ke/c/odcwro.] 
Kp6fj.ajj.cu, Aa/z^ (intrans.), Kpefx-qcrofxai. 
Kp€fJ.dvvv|ii (Kpejuui-), Jiang (trans.), /cpe^cD (for KpepLao-w), eKpefxaca, e/cpe/xd- 

(T#77J'. 

Kpi£« (icpiy-), creak, squeak, 2 a. (tKpiKov) 3 sing, K/>i/ce ; 2 p. (iceKpiya) fce- 

Kpiyores, squeaking. 
Kpivw, y«^e, f. k/ww, &c. See § 109, Note 1. [Ep. a. p. eKpii>dr)i>.] 
KpviTTO) (Kpv(3-, Kpv<p-), conceal, Kp\j\f/u, &c. regular ; 2 a. p. eKpixpTjv (rare). 
KTaofjLai, acquire, KrrjcrofjLai, eKryadfA-qv, KeKTrj/xai or eKr^fxat, possess (subj. 

K€KTU)fiai or KeKTWfxcu, opt. KeKTTjp^v or K€KT(j)fJL7]v), €kt7]8t)v (as pass. ) ; 

K€KT7)GopAii (rarely e/cr-), shall possess. 
Ktcivw (/ere*/-, ktw-), kill, f. /cre^cu [Ion. Kreveu), Ep. also Krai^u], a. CKreiva, 

2 p. eKTova (p. e'/cra7/ca, rare ) ; [Ep. iKTddrjv;] 2 a. eKravov ( e/crdV poet. ); 

2 a. m. poet, e/crdyu,^ (as pass.). 
ELnnr€<i> (/ctutt-), sound, cause to sound, eKTvwqcra, 2 a. '4ktvttov. 
KvXivSco or icuXivSeco (rarely kvXloj), roll, e/ctfXicra, k€kijXi(tiulcu, iKvXladrjv. 
Kvvcu) (ku-), A:/ss, e/cuca. IIpocr-Kvv€a> is generally regular. 
Kvpco, weef, chance, Kvpau, eKvpaa. Kvpew is regular. 



^ 



CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 227 



Acryxdvco (Xax-), obtain by lot, Xrj^ofiai [Ion. Xd^ofmc], etXrjxa, Ion. and poet. 

Xe\o7xa, (eiXrjyfjLcu) elXrjy/xevos, eXrjxOw '■> 2 a. eXaxov. 
Aafipdvco (Xa/3-), *a&e, Xr)\f/oficu, dXytya, eLXrjfjLjuxu (poet. XeXTj/uL/ULcu), eXricpd-nv; 

2 a. eXapov, eXa^ofXTjv. [Ion. Xd/x^o/Aat, XeXd/S^/ca, Xe'Xa/x^ucu, eXd/xcpd-nv.] 
AavOdvw, poet. X?70a; (Xa#-), /*e foa 7 , escape *Ae rcofr'ce o/ (some one), Xt^to;, 

[-eXT/ca], 2 p. XtX-qda ; 2 a. eXadou. Mid. forget, XrjtrofjLcu, XeX-rjo-fAcu 

[Horn, -aafiai], fut. pf. XeXrjtro/Mi, 2 a. eXado/JL-nv. 
AdcTKw (Xa/c-), speak, XaK-rjaofxaL, eXdK-qaa, 2 p. XeXd/ca [Ep. XA?;/ca] ; 2 a. 

eXaKov [XeXaKOfXTjv]. Poetic. 
[Adw, Xu), iwsA, X?}s, Xj, &c. ; Infin. X?)j>. § 123, Note 2. Doric.] 
A6*yw, say, Xe£w, eXe£a, XeXey/mi (dt-eLXey/uLai), eXix^V v \ fut. Xex^co/Ltai, 

Xe£oyucu, XeXe^Oyaat, all passive. For pf. act. eiprjKa is used (see elirov). 
Aiyw, gather, arrange, count (Attic only in comp. ), X^£o>, &\e£a, -efXoxa, 

cZXey/Aai or XeXey/mai, eX4x^V v (rare) ; 2 a. p. eXeyirjp; [2 a. m. eXeypLrju 

(Xe/cro, imper. Xe£o, inf. XexOcLt, pt. X^uej/os)]. [The Horn, forms 

XeZo/uaL, iX^dfiTjv, eXe£a, and eXeyfi^v, in the sense /?itf to res£, res£, are 

generally referred to stem Xex-, whence Xexo$» &c.] 
AeCirw (Xt7r-), Zeave, Xeixpu, XeXeijuL/JLcu, eXelcpd'qv ; 2 p. XeXoiira ; 2 a. eXurov, 

eXnro/jLrjv. See § 95. 
[AiXaiojJiai, desire eagerly. Ep. p. XeXiTjfiai, XeXiTj/m^os, eager.] 
Aio-o-op.aL (or Xlrofxai, rare), supplicate, [eXujdn'nv, 2 a. eXiTo^]. 
[Ao€(D, Epic for Xotfw ; Xoeao/uLai, eXoecra, iXoecrdfjLTjv.] 
Aovo>, 6a^e, wasA, regular ; generally drops v in Attic and is contracted ; 

as XovjULdi, eXovro, Xovfxevos. 
Avo), hose, see §§ 96 and 106 ; 2 a. m. i\^/njv (as pass.), Xijto and Xvto. 



M. 

Maivojj.cn (fmv-), be mad, [f. iiavovfiai Hdt.,] epi-qva [Ep. -d/*^], 2 p. fiifi-nua, 

am mad, 2 a. p. efxdvqv. 
Maio|xai (/xa-), seek, fidcrofxai, ifjiacrdfMrjp. Chiefly Epic. 
MavGdvw (/mad-), learn, fmdrjcrofiac, fxefiddrjKa ; 2 a. e/juadov. 
Mdofxcu, only in contract form titD/wu (imper. puJoeo or /xwtro, inf. itcDa-tfcu, pt. 

fjubfieuos), desire eagerly ; 2 p. (/JUEfxaa) § 130, 1 [part, fxefiacbs (-lotos or 

-6ros). A second p. fie/Mom (fJLev-) supplies the singular of (fxefxaa). 
MdpvafAcu, fight (subj. fxdpvicfiai, imp. fxdpvao) ; a. €fj.apvd<jdr)v. Poetic. 
Mdcrcrco (,ua7-), knead, /nat-to, &c. regular ; 2 a. p. e/udyrjv. 
Md\ojiai [Ion. fmxtofiai], */^> f- fiaxovfmt [Hdt. /Juxecro/jLat, Horn. ^X^°" 

/aat or xtax^oxtcu], p. fiepLaxv^h a. ipLax^d^rjv [Ep. also e/rnxv^d/M-qu ; 

Ep. pres. part. /jxlx^^P^vos or /xaxeotfitepos]. 



228 APPENDIX. 

[MeSofJLcw (fiede-), think of, plan, /nedrjo-o/jLcu (rare). Epic] 

M€0-tT]|ii, send away ; like I'tjju. [Hdt. p. pt. ixeixerijxevos.'] 

Mctpojxai (fJ.ep-), obtain, [Ep. 2 p. 3 sing, epitope ;] impers. ei'/xaprcu, i* is fated, 
elfrnpfxevv (as subst. ), i'ate. 

M^XXw (/ueWe-), intend, augrn. eAt- or tj/jl- ; fxeWrjcru, ifxeXXrjaa. § 98, 3. 

MeXw (fxeXe-), concern, care for, /xeXrjcruj [Ep. AteX^co/xcu, 2 p. fxe/x-nXa] ; yue^- 
X-n^ai [Ep. fjJfjLfiXeraL, /j,e/j.(3XeT0, for fie/JLeX-qrcu, fie/xeX-qro] ; (e/j.eXr)dr)v) 
ficX-ndels. McXci, if concerns, impers. ; fieXr)<T€L, ip^Xtjcre, /Ae/meX-nice. 

M^jiova, efesiVe, 2 perf. with no present. Ionic and poetic. See jidofiat. 

Mcvcu, remain, f. pce^a; [Ion. Aie^ea?], e/xetva, ixeixevnua. 

M€pfJfnpt5«, ponder, fiep/x-qpi^oj, e/jLepfx-qpL^a (rarely -ca). Poetic. 

Mtj$o|j.cu, devise, firjao/jLcu, efx-ncrdjii^v. Poetic. 

Mr]Kdo}Jiai (/aa/c-, p-rjK-), bleat, [2 a. part, /mkup ; 2 p. part, fiefi-nicus, fxepLcC' 
Kvla ; 2 pip. ifM€fjLT]Kov.] Chiefly Epic. 

Ml-yvvju and jiUryw (^y-), mix, au£w, e/u£a, fjuefuypai, kpXxQy\v ; 2 a. p. ifd- 
y-nv ; 2 a. m. c/jlikto and /u/cro for efxlyero ; fut. pf. ]xepJ\.^opx}.i. 

MifiVTjo-KU) (yotva-), remind. Mid. remember ; pLvqau, efxvnaa, /xe fAvn/juii, remem- 
ber, ifiurjaB-nv (as mid.) ; /JLvnadrjo-o/Acu, fxvrjcrofxai, fie/JLvrjcro/jLcu ; efxvnadfxriv 
(poet.). M€jxvT]|xai (memini) has subj. pLe/APio/mi or ixepw&fmi, opt. 
fiepLvc^-nv or iieiivrjfx-nv, imper. fxe/JLvnao, inf. [xefxvri<j6aL, pt. fJL€/jwnfj.€i>os. 
[From Ep. ^cioaccu come ipLvwovro, /jwojofxevos, &c. § 124, 1], 

Mvkoo|i.(u (pvK-), bellow, 2 p. pApLVKa ; [Ep. 2 a. fcikoz>.] 

N. 

NaUo (va-), o?w<?//, tvaaaa, hdaOrjv, havadpL-nv. Poetic. 

Ndo-<r«, stuff, [ti>a%a,] vevao-fiat. 

N€|xa) (veyac-), distribute, f. ye^a), eWt£ia, vevifxrjKa, vevefXTj/xat, hzy^Q-nv. 

Ncofxai, #0, come, or (as future) ivill go. Chiefly poetic. 

1. New (vev-) t swim, -tWuca, -vevevKa ; f. m. part, pevtrovfievos. 

2. New, heap up, ev-qaa, vevnp.0.1 or vtvyapuxi. 

3. N£u and v^0o>, spin, vrjvu, evrjaa, kvr\Qr\v ; [Ep. a. m. j/^cravro.] From 

vt]60), Ion. vrj-naa, vrjrj<rai, &c. 
Nt£tt, later W7rrw (wjS-), wasA, W^w, evixpa, vfri/JL/Acu, [-ivi<p6T]v.] 
Nocw, tAinfc, perceive, vo-qau, &c, regular in Attic. [Ion. huaa, -vivwica, 

vevufjuxi.] 



(*08v-), be angry, stem with only [Horn, ibdvo-dfi-nv, 65c£oW/«u]. 
v Oj;a> (65-, 6£e-), sme//, dfftru [Ion. d&aui], &fyaa [Ion. tffrra], 2 p. 68<a8a 
(late), [pip. 68u)8eiv Horn.] 



CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 229 

Otyvvpi and oi-yw, open, ot£w, $a [Ep. also #i'£a], -e^ucu, a. p. part 

olx^eis. See dv-ot*yvv|xi. 
Oi'ojiat, think, in prose generally oi/jlcli, ^mrju ; olr^dofxai., ^qd-nv. [Ep. act 

otoj (only 1 sing.), often oloj ; 6'lo/j.cu, dl'ad/JLrjv, ibi<rdr]i/.] 
Oi'xojiai (oi'xe-), be gone, olxvcto/jlcu, olxukcl or (Jx^' 01 [Ep. $xy Ka i I° n ' ^X 7 ? 

/mu or tpxv^h doubtful in Attic]. 
'OXt<r0dvw, rarely oXLvdaivw (6W0-), s/i/> [Ion. (bXiad-ncra, uXLad-nKa] ; 2 a 

&Xurdov. 
"OXXvju, rarely 6XXtfa> (oX-), destroy, lose, f. oXw [oXecrw, 6Xeu], tiXeaa, -<5Xw 

Xe/ca ; 2 p. 6XwXa, perish. Mid. 6XXv^cu, perish, oXoOyucu, 2 a. (bXofirjv, 

In prose generally dir-SXXvfjLi. 
"OfJLVvjxt and 6[ivvo> (o,a-, ojxo-), swear, f. 6[xovijjxl, co/mova, ofjuhfJLOKa, opuopLO 

(Tfjuai (with 6 fjiu /jlot at), u/jLodnv and (hjuLoad-nv ; d/moadrjcropxn. 
'0[idp*yvvfu (6^0/37-), wipe, djxbp^, -tipLopfc ; d-jr-o/jLopxOds. 
*OvtVT](xt (oVa-), benefit, ovrjcru, tivncra, (hv-qd-nv ; dvrjo-ofxaL ; 2 a. m. (jivdfxrjv 

or (hv7)pL7]v (rare) [Horn, imper. ovnao, pt. o^^evos]. 
'Opdw (ott-), see, imperf. eupuv [Ion. w/>a;i> or (bpeov, § 124, 1] ; 6\poixai, 

edopdica or eopd/ca, edopajjuai or cD/XyUat, uxpd-nv ; 2 p. 6'7ra;7ra (Ion. and poet.). 

For 2 a. eI5oj>, &c. see elSov. 
"Ope-yco, reacA, 6/oe£a>, #pe£a, [Ion. tipey/mai. Horn., p. p. 3 sing, dpwpexarai, 

pip. opupexaTO, ] (bpexOTjp. 
"Opvvju (6/?-), raise, rowse, o/jctw, cfyNra, 2 p. dpwpa (as mid.); [Ep. 2 a. #/9opoi\] 

Mid. rise, rush, [f. dpov/jai, p. opLbpefmc,] 2 a. wpopL-nv (with (D/sro, [imper. 

d/xro, 8pcr€o, 8p<rev, inf. cDpflcu,] part 8pfxevo$). Poetic. 
'Opvo-o-to or opvTTca (6/)u7-), dig, 6pv£u, &pv%a, -dpApvx* (rare), 6p&pvyfxai 

(rarely tipvyimi), (bpiJxOrjv ; 2 f. p. -6pvxr}<rofJLcu ; [(bpv^dpLrjv, caused to dig, 

Hdt.] 
•Oo-^paCvojxcu (6<T(pp-), smell, oaQprjo-ofmi, <b<j<ppdv6r}v (rare), 2 a. m. 

lb<T(pp6/J,T)V. 

Ovrdu), wound, ovrrjau), ovt7)07)v ; [Ep. 2 a. 3 sing, ofrra, inf. ovrafxevai and 

otirdfiev ; mid. ovrdpLevos as pass.] 
Ovrdjo), wound, ovrda-u, otfraVa, otiracr/jLcu. 

'0<|>€iXa> (60e<Xe-, 60eX-), § 108, 4, II.) [Ep. reg. (5<^XXw], owe, ou#fa, 6>et- 
X^crw, dxpeiX-rja-a, (ucpeLX-qKa ?) a. p. pt. 6<p€LXr)deLs ; 2 a. &<peXop, used in 
wisAes (§ 251, Note 1), that! 
'0<{>\urKdva> {6<pX-), be guilty, incur (a penalty), dtfrX-qau, tifiX-ncra (rare), 
&<pXr)Ka, &<pXrjfjiaL ; 2 a. &<pXoi> (inf. and pt. sometimes 8<pX€tv, &<j>Xuv). 

n. 

Ilat^o) (7rai-), sportf, Trcu%od/j,cu, eiraiaa, ireiraiKa (later), 7r4irai<TfjLai. 
Ilatco, strike, water w (poet, tclltjctu), eirauja, -7reVcu/ca, tiraLad-nv. 



230 APPENDIX. 

IldXXa) (waX-), brandish, ewrjXa, weirdX/mc ; [Horn. 2 a. d^ireiraXfhv, as if from 

ir^iraXov ; ttclXto for iirdXeTO.] 
(IldofJLai, imaginary pres.), acquire, whence irdvopLai (d), ireird/Mxi, iwdad- 

firiv. Poetic. See iraTcopai. 
IIapavo(Ji€a), transgress law, augm. irap-qv-, irapavev-. § 105, 1, Note 2. 
Ilapotvecs), insult (as a drunken man), imp. iirapujyovu ; irapoiviqcro}, e-rrapi^- 

vncra, ireTrap<j)i>r)K.a, eirapcfyr/drjv. 
IId<rxa> (irad-, irevd-), suffer, irduopjai (for irevd-aofxaL), 2 p. ireirovda [Horn. 

ire-rrocrde arid ireirddvia] ; 2 a. eiradov. 
HaTiopai (7ra-), eat, ird<JO[iai (a), eiraadfi-nv ; [Ep. pip. Tre^dcr/^.] Ionic 

and poetic. See (irdofxai). 
Il€i0a> (?ri0-), persuade, weivw, &c. regular (§ 16) ; 2 p. ireiroiOa, trust, [Ep. 

€7re7ri6fxev, pip. for eireiroideLixev ;] poet. 2 a. tiridov and eirLdofx-qv. 
HeXd^w (7re\a5-, ir\a-), ireXdu or ireXddu, bring near, come near, f. 7reXu) (for 

7re\do"a>), eireXaaa, ireTrXripuL, tireXdadrjit and iirXddrjv (trag.) ; [2 am. 

€7r\rjfir]y, approached.] 
IlfiXw and tt€Xo[«h, 6e, imp. tireXov, eireKb^-qv [syncop. t7rXe, e7rXeo (I^Xei;), 

eirXero, for eweXe, &c; so eiri-TrXbfievos and 7re/)£-7rX6 y uej'os]. 
IltiJfTra), se^c/, 7re/j.ipu, &c, regnlar, except perf. TreirofKpa. 
IIep8o|iai (7rap5-), Lat. /^eofo, -irapdrjcropLaL, 2 p. ireiropda, 2 a. -eirapdov. 
IlepOo) (7r/ja-), destroy, sack, irepau, eirepcra, [Ep. 2 a. eirpadov, eirpadbp.-nv (as 

pass.), with inf . wepdai.] Poetic. 
Ilecro-w or itcttco (7re7r-, § 108, 4, I.), coo&, irixf/a (?), eire-fta, ireirefXfxaL, 

€7T€(p6T]U. 

n€Tdvvu|xt (it era-), expand, irerdcruj (7rertD), eireracra, ireirrafmL (ireireTaaiMH. 

late), iirerdadrjv. 
IUtouch (irre-, tttcl-), fly, ttt7)<toixcu (poet. Trerrjaopxu.), 2 a. m. iirTOfx-qv, 

From lVTap.ai (rare), 2 a, €7rr^ (poet.) and iirTdfjLTjv. The forms 

Treirbr-qpuii and eiror-qd-qv (Dor. -d/xat, -ad-qv) belong to irordo/uLat. 
ILfj-yvvju (way-), fix, freeze, irffeta, eir-q^a, iirrjx^V^ (rare and poet.); 2 a. p. 

€Trdyt)v ; 2 p. ireirrf^a, be fixed ; [Ep. 2 a. m. Arar-^TTTj/cro.] 
IlL(jnrXT]|Xi (7r\a-), ^/z//, irX-qau, e-rrXfjcra, ireirX-qKa, ireirXria^af,, eirX-qad-qv ; [Ep. 

2 a. m. €TrXri/j,7]v.~\ 
IItfjL7rpTjp.t (irpa-), burn, irprjcru}, lirp-qaa, Treirpy)p.ai and ireirprjcrpuL, eirp-qad-qv; 

[Ion. fut. pf. TrewprjcrofjiaL.] Kindred to Trprjdu, blow. 
IIivvo-kw and irivvo-o-w (irvv-), make icise, chiefly Epic; [w^Trvv/iaL, be wise, 

part, ireirvvpevos, wise.] See irve'o). 
ULvoi (ttl-, 7ro-), drink, fut. iriop,ai ; ireiruKa, Treiro/ncu, iirod-nu ; 2 a. 

einov. 
nnrpdcrKO) (irepa-, irpa-), sell, [Ep. irepdcruj, iwepacra,] ireirpaKa, ir4ir papal 

[Horn. Treirep-qfAevoi], eirpad-qv [Ion. -77/xcu, -rjdrjv] ; fut. pf. weirpdaofAaL. 

The Attic uses air odwaopjai and dire§biJ.7)v in fut. and aor. 



CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 231 

IIiirTG) (7rer-, § 108, 8), fall, f. ireaovixai [Ion. Tecreo^cu] ; p. ir^irruKa, part. 

ireTrrdjs [Ep. 7T€irT7jU)s or -ecus] ; 2 a. eireaov [Dor. tirerov]. 
IIXd£w (7rXa77-), cause to wander, eirXay^a. Pass, and Mid. irXd£ojj.ai, wan- 
der, irXdy^o/uLat,, will wander, eirXdyxQw, wandered. Ionic and poetic. 
n\€Ko>, plait, knit, 7rXe£o7, &c. regular ; perf. ireirXoxo. or weirXexa (rare) ; 

2 a. p. -€TrX&K7}i>. 
IlXeo) (7r\eu-), sail, irXevaopui or irXevvovimi, eirXevaa, ireirXevKa, weTrXeij- 

<rfj.ai. § 123, Note 1. 
nXtjo-o-o) or 7tXtjtt<«) (7rXa7-), s£n£e, ttXtj^oj, tVX^a, ir^irXrjypxiL, eirX-qx^W 

(rare) ; 2 p. ir€7rXr)ya (rare) ; 2 a. p. eirXrjyTjv (in comp. eirXdyrjv) ; 

2 f. pass. irXrjyrjcrofjLaL and TrXayrjvofAcu ; fut. pf. ireirX^opiaL ; [Ep. 2 a. 

ireirXyryov (or eweirX-), ireirXrfybiA-nv.] 
IIv€co (7r^ei;-), 6/ow, breathe, irve^aofiaL and irvevaovp/xL, ewvevaa, •ire'irvevKa. 

For ireirvvfjiai see irivv<rK«. 
(IIop-), #ive, a//o£, stem whence 2 a. eiropov, p. p. ireirpuTai, it is fated (with 

irewpwfji.evr), Fate). See [A6ipofj.au 
Upcwro-o) or irpdrrG) (irpay-), do, wpdfa, &c. regular ; fut. pf. ireirpd^opxn. ; 

2 p. ireirpdya, have fared (well or ill). 
IlTapvvji.ai (irrap-), sneeze; 2 aor. eirrapov \<ETrTap6p.T}v], (iirrdprjv) irrapeis. 
ITnrjo-<rG> (tttolk-, irr-nK-), cower, eirrrj^a, eirrrjxoL, 2 a. -eirraKOv, [Ep. /cara- 

-KT7\T7\v dual, as if from 'iin-nv ; 2 p. pt. 7T67rr7;a>s]. 
Hvv0dvo|j.ai, poet. ir€v0op.ai (7ru0-), Aea?*, enquire, irevao/jLcu [Dor. 7ref<7oujaai], 

ireirvajxaL ; 2 a. k-KvQbyjr\v. 



'Patvw (pa?'-, pa5-), sprinkle, pauQ, eppdva [Ep. eppaaaa], 'ippavfiai [Horn. 

eppddarai, eppddaro], (eppdvd-qv) pavdels. Ionic and poetic. 
'Pdirrw (pa<p-), stitch, -pd\pw, eppaxf/a, eppawai ; 2 a. p. £ppd<p7)v. 
'Pc'Jw (pe7-), for €p5w, do, pe%u, epefr (rarely eppefr); [Ion. a. p. pexOelrj, 

pexOeis.] 
'Pita (pev-),flow, pevaoimi, eppevcra, eppvrjKa ; 2 a. p. eppti-qv ; pv-qaopxiL. 
fPc-), stem of eiprjKa, dpy/uu, epp-qdrjv (eppedrjv). See clirov. 
'Prj-yvvfu (pay-, prry-, pay-), break, prjZoj, epprj^a, [-epprjyuai rare, ipp-rjx^ 

rare ;] 2 a. p. eppdyrjv ; payrjo-opLcu ; 2 p. eppuya, be broken. 
'Pi-ycw (pty-), shudder, piyq<rw, eppiyrjo-a, 2 p. epplya (as pres.). 
'Pi-ydo), shiver, regular ; inf. po^ or ptyovv, § 123, Note 3. 
'Piirra) (pt<p-), throw, pixpu, eppixpa (poet, epixpa), epplcpa, eppi/ufmc [poet. p£- 

pt/uLpLcu, Horn. pip. ipepcwTo], ippLcpd-qv ; 2 a. p. epp'up-qv ; pL<pdr}<To/mt. 
'Pwwvfu (po-), strengthen, eppuaa, eppuixai (imper. eppuao. farewell), ip- 

pwad-qv. 



232 APPENDIX. 



2cupw (a-ap-), sweep, aor. (eo-npa) pt. crrjpas ; 2 p. <rko-r\pa, grin, esp. in part. 

o-eo-npws (perhaps from another stem crap-). 
2p€VW}u (cr/3e-), extinguish, crj3eo-u), ecr^eaa, -ecr^rjKa, eo-(3e<rjuLai f to-pead-nv ; 

2 a. ec/^j/ ; aprjcro/jLaL. 
SeCw, shake, aeiau, eaetaa, aeaetKa, <re<rei.o~fAai, 4<T€l<t6tjv [Ep. imp. £(T<T€lovto]. 
2€vw (crv-), 77io/je, wrge, a. tcraeva, €0~o~evdfA'nv ; taavfxat, €G<jvQt\v or ecrvd-nv ; 

2 a. m. ecravjuLTju (with ecrvro, <tvto, avfiepos). Poetic. 
S^irco (<7a?r-), rot, crj^/u, 2 p. creo-niTa (as pres.), 2 a. p. evair-qv. 
SK€8dvvi»|JLi (<TK€da-), scatter, f. cr/cedcD (for c/ceSdcra;), €<TKeda<ra, (e<TKedaa-fjLai) 

eaKedao-fxevos, eaKeddcrdrju. 
SkcXXw (ovcaX-, c/cXa-), e?n/ t^, [Ep. a. eaicnXa,] eWX^a ; 2 a. co-kXtju. 
Skwtttco (<TKWir-), jeer, <TK<Jb\J/o/Aai, €cncix)\(/a, eGKdxfrdrjv. 
Sirdw, ofaiztf, o-irdau (a), eo-irdo-a, ecnraKa, eo-wacrfiai, ecnrda-d-nv. 
2TT€Lpw (<77re/>-), sow;, airepG), ecrireipa, £<nrap[xaL ; 2 a. p. io-jrdprjv. 
2ir€vSo>, powr a libation, cnreicru, ecnreLcra, b<nrei(T/j,ai. § 16, 3 and 5. 
2t€CP« (<TTLpe-), tread, tareixpa, earl^-qixai. Poetic. 
2t€'X\w (crreX-), send, (rreXto [crreXew], tareiXa, eVraX/ca, etrraX/icu ; 2 a. p. 

€(TTdXr)p ; ~iJTaXr)<rofxcu. 
2T6p*Ya>, Zove, (rrep^oj, ecrrep^a ; 2 p. to-ropya. 

2T0p€WU|u or <rTopvvp.i (crro^e-), (rropdj (for crropeo-u), icrropea-a, [eo'TOpiad-nv.'] 
2Tpecj>w, fr^nz, (TTptxj/u, eaTpa/jL/jLCLL, ecrrpecpdriv rare [Ion. earpd^d-nv] ; 2 a. p. 

i(TTpd(p7]P. 

2Tpwvv\)}it, same as oropevvvju ; <rTp&<ju, ecrrpucra, ecrTpw/xai. 

'Zrvyiu (<TTvy-), dread, evrvyncra [earv^a], [iarvynKa,] ia-Tvyrjdyjv ; 2 f. p. 

<TTvyr}<rofiaL ; [Ep. 2 a. earvyov.] 
2<f>d\\« (<r<paX-), trip, deceive, <r<paX&, eacp-nXa, eacpaXficu ; 2 a. p. to-fydX-nv. 
2«£« ((to-), save, o-dxro), eVwcra, aicruKa, <re<ru(T/uLaL or creo-w/xcu, to~d)0'ni>. 



(Ta-y-), s«ze, stem with [Horn. 2 a. pt. TeTaYc6j>]. See r?), Trjre, take, in Lex. 

(TaXa-), full form of (rXa-). See tXow. 

Tapcunrco (ra/>ax _ )> disturb, rapdfy, &c. regular. [Ep. pf. (rirp-nxa) TerpTj- 

X^s, disturbed ; pip. rerprixei..] 
Tdo-o-w (ra7-), arrange, rdfa, &c. regular ; 2 a. p. irdyrju ; rcrdl-oiuuii. 
TcCvco (re*/-), stretch, tcj/Q, ereipa, reraKa, rera^ai, irddrjp. § 109, Note 1. 
T€(iva) (re/x-, r/xe-) [Ion. rd/xj/w], cm£, f. rexta), r^TjULTjKa, t^t/^/x-cu, iTjULrjdnv ; 

2 a. erefjiov, irefjLd/jLrjp (or ira/x-). See Tjjtfj-ya). 
(Tcp.-), ^/M, stem with only [Horn, redupl. 2 a. rerpiov or ererfMov]. 
Tipirta (rap7r-, rpair-), amuse, rep\pu), erepxpa, irepcpd-qv [Ep. irdpcpd^v, 2 a. p. 

irdpTTTjv (with suhj. Tpaireiu), 2 a. m. (r)era/)7r 6^771/]. 
[Tepaojiat, become (/r^, 2 a. p. irtpo-nu. Fut. t^/xto? in Theoc] 



CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 233 

[Terfrrjuai, Horn, perf.; generally in part. t€T(,7]/j.€vos, with tctltjcos, both. 

passive, dejected, troubled.'] 
[TtTjiov or iTCTf&ov (YLom.) y found, for t€-t€jul-op. See (t€(i-).] 
Tcvx« (t v X~> TVK ')f prepare, make, revi-u, erev^a, [Ep. re'rei^a as pass.,] 

rirvyfjiaL [Ep. rerevy-], eTvxOrjv [Ion. irevx^W i Ep. 2 a. t^tvkov, tctv- 

Kojj.7)if ; fut. pf. rere^o/xat]. 
T-fJKw (ra/c-), melt, rrj^u, errj^a, €ttjxOtjv (rare) ; 2 a. p. erdK-qv ; 2 p. t€tt)kcl 

(as mid.). 
TCGtijii (Be-), put; see § 126. 
T£kto> (re/c-), fce^rei, in'm? ^/ortA, re^o/xat, (poet, also refw), ere£a (rare), £t4~ 

X&W (rare) ; 2 p. t€tokcl ; 2 a. ereKov, €T€k6/jl7jp. 
T£vw {tl-), pay, Tiaa, erTcra, reriKa, -T€Ti<r/j,ai, -€tI<t6tjv. 
Tirpdo) (rpa-), bore, erpr\(ja, T€Tpr)/j,ai. 

Tirpwo-KO) (rpo-), wound, rpwcru, erpuaa, rerpoj/jLai, irpibdrjv. 
TXdw, bear, dare, syncop. for (raXa-w), pres. not classic ; f. rX^a-ofxai, [Ep. 

a. erctXcurcra,] p. r^rXrjKa with (WrXaa) § 130, 1 [Ep. part. t€t\t)6s] ; 

2 a. IrX^ [Dor. erXcu']. Poetic. 
[Tfi/qYco (rfxay-), cut, poet, for re jam ; t/jl-tj^u (rare), Ir/^ifa, 2 a. erfiayov, 

€Tjj.dyr)v (rjudyev for er/idy^o-aj').] 
Top€o> (to/)-), pierce, [-Toprjau,] rarely reTop-rjcrw, [iropTja-a, 2 a. eropop.] 
Tpeirw [Ion. r/od7rw], turn, rpexf/u, erpexpa, re'rpotpa (rarely rerpacpa), rerpajj,' 

fiat, €Tp€(p6r]P [Ion. €Tpd(p07]v] ; a. m. eTpexpdfjLTjv ; 2 a. eTpdiryv, irpa- 

irbpL-qv, [Ep. iT-paTro^.] § 109, 3. This verb has all the six aorists. 
Tp€<f>o> (0pe<f>-, § 17, 2, Note), nourish, 0pe\pu), erpexf/a, rerpo^a, redpapLfxai, 

i0pe^>07jp (rare) ; 2 a. p. kTpd<pr\v, [Ep. 2 a. erpacpou as pass.] 
Tpe'xw (Qpex-> § 1?> 2, Note, dpa/m-), run, f. dpafxodfiai (-dpe^ofxat only in 

comedy), €0pe%a (rare), dedpd/xrjKa, -dedpd/JLrjfiai ; 2 p. -didpo/xa (poet.), 

2 a. edpa/Mou. 
Tpt£a> (rpcy-), squeak, [2 p. r^rpTya as present.] 
Tpvxw (rpuxo-), exhaust, [rpv^u,] p. p. part, rerpvx^^uos. 
Tp<ay<a (rpay-), gnaw, rpdo^ofxat, [-erpu^a,] -rtrpuynai ; 2 a. erpayov. 
Tvy\dvft) (tu%-, reu%-), &Y, happen, Tev^o/xaL, [Ep. ^ri^x^ ;] r€rvxv Ka or 

re'revx**- ; 2 a. ervxov. 
Tvirrco (tutt-), strike, rvirr-qaw, Zrvxpa (iTrj7rrii<ra later), T^rvfifxai ; 2 a. erv- 

ttov (rare), irrjirrju (poet.) ; rvirr-qaofxaL (as pass.). 
Tv<j>co (0v<p-, § 17, 2, Note), raise smoke, smoke, rl0v/A/£at, '2 a. p. -irticp-nv. 



'Ym<rxv€op.<u, poet, and Ion. i)irCcr\o[ka.i (strengthened from \m 4xofJ.cn), 
promise, viro<rx'no-op.aL, vir4<rxw aL i {inreax^w) once in i/irocx^rrn 
(Plat.) ; 2 a. m. i>7r€<Tx6fJL7}i>. 

"Yw, rain, ftrw, Sera, da/xai, VaBrju. [Hdt. ti<To/j.at as pass.] 



234 APPENDIX. 



<i>. 



4>aiva> ((pav-), show, f. (pai>& [(paveu], a. €(p7]va, wecpayKa, irecpacrfjLcu (§ 113, 
Note 4), i<pdvdr]v ; 2 a. p. i<pdi>7]i> ; 2 p. irecp-qva ; f. m. (pavovjuLai, f. p. 
(pavrjo-o/jLcu ; [Ep. iter. 2 aor. (pdveafce, appeared.} See § 97. 
^aa), s^'ne (pres. late), [Horn, imperf. 0de, fut. pf. wecp-foeTai.] 
$eC§o\Lai (0*5-), spare, (pei<ro/j,ai [Hom. ire^Ldrjaofiat], ecpeLadfx-qv, [Horn. 2 a. 

7r€<pl56fA7]V. ] 

(<l>€v-, ^a-), Ml, stems whence [Hom. 7re0a/xat, -ire^rjao/JLai ; 2 a. redupl. 
irecpvov or tirecpvov, with part. ire<pvcjp\. 

<l>€pw (ot-, e*>e/c-, eveyK-), bear, f. ofcru, a. rjveyKa, p. hfyoxa, h-qveyfiai, a. p. 
TjvexOrjv ; 2 a. -rjveyKov ; evexOr)<rop.ai and ol<Tdr)<To/uLou ; ofoo/jLai (some- 
times as pass. ) ; ijvey Kd/j.vv. [Ion. ^Vet/ca and -a/^, tjvclkov, evqveiyixai, 
'qvelxO'qv ; Hdt. d^-ycrai, inf. from aor. cpaa ; Hom. aor. imper. olcre for 
oXctou, pres. imper. <pepre for 0epere]. 

^>€v"yo) (0i'7-)» ^ ee » <pev£ofxai and (pev^ov/xat, 2 p. wecpevyu (§ 116, Note 2), 
2 a. ecpvyoit ; [Hom. p. part, -n-ecpvy/iepos and 7re0u^6res.] 

^>tj|xl (0a-), say, (prjcru}, ecprjaa ; p. p. imper. ire<pd(rdu, part, ire^aafjihos. 
For other forms and inflection, see § 129, IV. 

^Gdvw (00a-), anticipate, (pddau and <pdrj(TOfiaL, ecpdaaa, [ecpdaKa ;] 2 a. act. 
e0077*> (like ear-qv), [Ep. 2 a. m. 00d/*ei'os.] 

^Geipo) (<p6ep-), corrupt, f. cpdepw [Ion. -<pdepeu, Ep. 0#e/)crw], ecpdeipa, e<p- 
OapKO, €<pdapfj,aL ; 2 a. p. e<pddp7)P ; 2 p. dt-ecpdopa ; f. m. <j>6epovficu 
[Hdt. (pdapeofxat]. 

4>0tvo> [Ep. also 00tw], wtfzste, cfecaj/, 00iVw, efiOicra, ecpOifiai, kfyOiQ-qv ; 2 a. m. 
icpdi/jLTjp [subj. (pdiw/jLcu, opt. 4>0L/iip for QOi-i-fi-riv, imper. 3 sing. 00tV0w, 
inf. (peiadai], part. <j>difievos. Chiefly poetic. The present is generally 
intransitive ; the future and aorist active are transitive. 

3>i\6<o (0i\-), /owe, <pi\r}(Tio, &c. regular. [Ep. a. m. i<pi\dfi7jv ; inf. pres. 
<f>Ck-f)}X€vai, from Aeolic <f>i\7jfii. ] 

4>pd£a> (0pa5-), fe/J, 0/>dcra>, &c. regular. [Ep. 2 a. irtypadov or iwecppadov. ] 

4>v«, produce, 4>v<tu, e0u<ra, irecpvKa, be (by nature), with 2 p. (ire^va) § 130, 

1 ; 2 a. t0u^, 6e, 6e Bora ; 2 a. p. e0iV- 

X. 

Xd£o> (xa5-), yield, retire (pres. only in &va-x&fa), [Ep. £ xa™Ma<, *e/ca- 
8r)<rw (causative), 2 a. KeKadov (caus.), 2 a. m. K€Kad6fiw H a - m - 
^Xacd^j/ (Epic, once in Xen. Sta-xdcao-fou). 

XcUpw {x a P; X aL P € -)> rejoice, x<upM<*> KexdprjKa, Kexdpwat and K^apfiat, 

2 a. p. ix*PW> [ E P- 2 a - m - K€xap6fir)v ; 2 p. pt. Kexapyus ; fut. pf. 
Kexapyw, Kexapycro/JLdi.] 

XavSdvo) (xa5-, x^-)> hold,\x€i(rofiai 9 2 p. Kexavda (as pres.), 2 a. Ix a5 °"-] 
Chiefly Epic. 



CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 235 

Xcutko), later \cuvco (x&v-), 9 a P e > £ X avo ^l ULa h 2 p. Kexw a ( as pres.), 2 a. 

t'xaf'jv. Poetic. 
Xeja) (xe5-), fut. xecro^aai (rarely x^o/uat), ex e<ra > 2 p. -/ce'xofoi ; 2 a. exe- 

coj> (rare) ; p. p. part. KexevfJ-evos. 
Xew (xu-, x^v-), /»«r, f. x e ' w [ E P- X 6l H> a - e'x ea [ E P- ^'x 6 H> **'xi^cu, *Xv- 

6vv ; 2 a. m. hxvtJ-rjv. 
Xdco, Aea/9 ?//>, x^ "^ £x WJ " a > -xex^Ka, /cex a,cr A tai ) ix^crO-nv. 
(Xpaio-jJie- and \pcw(r[A-), ai'<?rt, Ag/p, stem whence [Horn. xP aL<T f J 'V a ' l > } , expai- 

a/jLTjaa ; 2 a. ex/ mi0 > t0 * / ]' 
Xpdoficu, use, perhaps mid. of xpv-v ; XPy <T0 l J ' aL i ^XPV^d/uL-nv, K ^XP r lf xclL i ^XPV' 

adrjy. For XPV TCLL [Hdt. xp^rat], &a, see § 123, Note 2. 
Xpdco, g/re oracles, xpM^, ^xPW a i k€xpt]kol (later), KexpyvfJ-cu (-nficu ?), 

expyvdw- Mid. consult an oracle. § 123, Note 2. 
XpTj (impers.), irreg. contr. for xpdet, there is need, (one) ought, must, snbj. 

XPVi °pt. XP 6Lr li M- XPW aL (poet, x/ 9 ^) > imperf. x/ 9 ?)*' or ^XP^ > 

f. XPV (T€L - 'Air<$-xpT|, # suffices, inf. dTroxp^, imperf. airexpy, [Ion. 

airoxpa, diroxpdv, direxpa ;] diroxp^ei, direxpV ' 6 ' Xpfjs and x/ 9 ?? (f° r 

Xpdeis, xpo- 61 ) are rarely used in the sense of x/o^ets, xpvt € h wish, want, 
Xpio), anoint, sting, xpiw, ^XP~ L(7a i KeKp^uat (or -ur/6ai), exp'^Orjv. 



^Pvyo) (^i/y-)> coo/, ^tffw, e\j/v£a, e\//vyfj,ai, tytixOrjv ', 2 a. p. tytixyv or 
(generally later) exf/tyr)?. 

a. 

'ClQia (&0-), push, uhtu (poet, i&0i}<ru], eWa {Ion. cDa-a], caxr/uu [Ion. 

-cDc^aat], -ewvdnv ; wcrdrjcroiJLcu ; a. m. euadfxnv [Ion. cjcrdyUTp] . 
'£2v€0|j.ai, owy, imp. euvovfnjv or ibvovfjLrjv ; ibvyjao/xaL, iuvrj/uLat, iwr)dr)i>. 

Classic writers use eirpid^-nv (§ 126) for later (bvqadfx-qv (or iupTjadfxijp). 



ENGLISH INDEX 



N. B. The figures refer to pages. 



Accent, 10-15; general principles, 
10 ; of contracted syllables, 12 ; 
in crasis and elision, 12 ; of nouns, 
12 ; of verbs, 13. 

Accusative case, 18 ; as subj. of infin., 
113-114; after prepositions, 150- 
151; accus. absolute, 202-203; 
other syntax of, 129-133 (see Ta- 
ble of Contents) ; of third decl., 
bow formed from stem, 25 - 26. 

Active voice, 61, 152 ; used intran- 
sitively, 152. 

Adjectives, declension of, 38-50 (see 
Table of Contents) ; syntax of, 

116 - 117 ; attributive and predi- 
cate, 116 ; with several nouns, 116- 

117 ; used as nouns, 118 ; used for 
adverbs, 117 ; case of, when refer- 
ring to omitted subject of infin., 
117. 

Adverbs, how formed from adjectives, 
50; comparison of, 50-51; nume- 
ral, 51-52 ; syntax of, 151 ; geni- 
tive after, 143 ; assimilation in rela- 
tive adv., 128. 

Alphabet, 1 ; obsolete letters in, 2. 

Aorist, 61, 83, 154 ; augment of, 77, 
78 ; meaning of name, 155 ; of 
liquid verbs, 73, 74, 91 ; three 
aorist s in -/ca, 91 ; second aor., 61. 
Aor. indie, distinguished from im- 
perf., 155 ; in final clauses, 167 ; 
in conditional sentences, 170, 172; 
iterative, 161 ; Ionic iterative form 
in -<tkov or -aKofXTjv, 92, 161. Aor. 
in dependent moods, 156-159 ; 
how distinguished from present, 
156, 158, 159 ; aor. infin. referring 
to past time in indirect discourse, 

158, 186 ; after verbs of promising, 
&c, for future, 159. Aor. partic, 

159, 160 ; sometimes not past in 



time, 160, 203, 204 ; with XavBdvu, 
Tvyxdvu, <pdai>u), &c, 203 ; with 
irepLopau, &c, 204; in indirect dis- 
course, 204. Aor. with #f, 162, 
172, 173, 161. Gnomic aorist, 
160. 

Apodosis, 169, 178 ; ellipsis of, 176. 

Anacrusis* 210. 

Anapaestic verses, 214-215 ; sys- 
tems, 215. 

Anastrophe, 11, 151. 

Antecedent of relative, 126, 127 ; 
omission of, 127 ; definite and in- 
definite, 178. See Eelative Sen- 
tences. 

Apposition, 115 ; partitive, 116 ; ap- 
pos. with gen. implied in posses- 
sive, 116 ; with a sentence, 116. 

Arsis and thesis, 210. 

Article (definite), declension of, 53, 
54; syntax of, 118-123; as pro- 
noun, in Homer, 118, in Attic 
Greek, 122, 123. See Contents. 

Assimilation of relatives, 127-128; 
inverted, 128 ; in rel. adverbs, 
128. 

Attic (second) declension*, 22 ; Attic 
future, 91 ; dialect, xix. 

Attraction of relatives, 127 ; joined 
with assimilation, 128. 

Augment, 77-79 ; syllabic, 77 ; 
temporal, 77 - 78 ; of compound 
verbs, 78 - 79 ; reduplication, 77 ; 
Attic redupl. 78. 

Bar vt ones, 11. 

Basis, 210. 

Breathings, 2, 3 ; place of, 2 ; on 
initial p, 3 ; on pp, 3. 

Caesura, 210-211. 

Cases, 18 ; meaning of, 18 ; syntax 

of, 129-150; oblique, 18. 
i Causal Sentences, 190. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



237 



Characteristics of the tenses, 83. 

Choriambic verses, 215-216. 

Collective noun with plural verb, 
114 ; with plural participle, 117 ; 
followed by plural relative, 126. 

Collision of Vowels, how avoided, 4. 

Common Dialect, xx. 

Comparative degree, 47-48, 50 ; 
gen. after, 140. 

Comparison of adjectives, 47-50 ; 
of adverbs, 50 ; irregular, 49, 50, 
51 ; of nouns or pronouns, 50. 

Conditional Sentences, 169-177 (see 
Table of Contents) ; classification 
of, 169-172 ; Greek forms of, com- 
pared with Latin, 170 - 172 ; cond. 
rel. sentences, 178-181. 

Connecting vowels, 86. 

Compound words, how formed, 112. 

Consonants, 3 ; double, 3 ; divisions 
of, 3 ; movable, 6 ; euphony of, 
7-9. 

Contract nouns, 20, 23, 29-34; ad- 
jectives, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46 ; verbs, 
93 - 96 ; accent of contracted syl- 
lables, 12. 

Contraction, 4 ; rules of, 4, 5. 

Copula, 113. 

Coronis, 5. 

Crasis, 5 ; rules of, 5, 6. 

Dactylic verses, 213-214. 

Dative case, 18 ; syntax of, 144- 
150 (see Table of Contents) ; dat. 
plur. of third decl., 27. 

Declensions, 17, 18 : see Contents. 

Deponent verbs, 61 ; principal parts 
of, 62. 

Dialectic changes, 15, 16. 

Dialects, xix, xx. 

Digamma, see Vau. 

Diphthongs, 2. 

Direct Discourse, distinguished from 
Indirect, 183. 

Double Negatives, 207, 208. See 
Ov pr) and Mr] ov. 

Effect, accus. of, 130. 

Elegiac distich, 213-214. 

Elision, 6 ; before a consonant (in 
poetry), 6. 

Enclitics, 14, 15. 

Endings, 17 ; verbal, and connecting 
' vowels, 84-90 (see Table of Con- 
tents). 



Euphonic changes, 7-9. 

Exhortations, irnper. and subj. in, 192. 

Feet, 209 ; ictus of, 210 ; arsis and 
thesis, 210. 

Final and object clauses with iva 
07ra>s, cos, ju?y, 165-169 (see Table 
of Contents). 

Future, 61, 83, 154 ; of liquid verbs, 
73 - 74, 91 ; Attic fut, in w and 
-ovfxcu, 91 ; second fut., 61 ; ex- 
pressing permission or command, 
155, 156 ; rarely in final clauses, 
166 ; regularly in object clauses 
with owtos, 167 ; rarely with /at/ 
after verbs of fearing, 168 ; in 
protasis, 171, 172, 174 ; in rel. 
clauses expressing purpose, 181 ; 
with €(fj £ or e(/>' fre, 181 ; with ov 
/My, 193 ; with dp (Horn.), 162, 163 ; 
periphrastic form with /xeXXw, 76, 
158 ; optative, 158, 159, 167, 185 
(never with av 162) ; infin., 157- 
158, 159, 186-187; participle, 
159-160, 186-187, 201, 204. 

Future perfect, 61, 83, 154, 156 ; 
regularly passive, 61 ; generally 
periphrastic in active, 76 ; rarely 
otherwise, 91. 

Genders, 17 ; natural and grammati- 
cal, 17 ; designated by the article, 
17 ; common and epicene, 18. 

General and Particular Suppositions 
distinguished, 169-172. 

Genitive case, 18 ; absolute, 143, 
202; other syntax of, 133-143 
(see Table of Contents). 

Glyconic verse, 216. 

Gnomic tenses (pres., aor., perf.), 
160-161 ; sometimes in infin. and 
partic, 161. 

Hellenes, xix. 

Hellenistic Greek, xx. 

Heroic Hexameter, 213. 

Heteroclites, 36. 

Heterogeneous nouns, 37. 

Hiatus, 4. 

Hoping, &c, verbs of, with fut., 
pres., or aor. infin., 159. 

Iambic verses, 211-212; systems, 
215 ; tragic and comic trimeter, 
212-213. 

Imperative, 61, 89, 165, 192 ; pres. 
(rarely aor.) with [xv n 192. 



238 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



Imperfect, 154 ; augment of, 77, 78 ; 
distinguished from aor., 155 ; ex- 
pressing an attempt, 155 ; how ex- 
pressed in infin. and partic., 159, 
160 ; rarely in opt., 185 ; with av, 
161, 162, 172, 173. 

Impersonal verbs, 114. 

Indeclinable nouns, 37. 

Indicative, 61, 84-88, 164; fat. in 
final clauses (rare), 166, in object 
clauses with onus, 167, with fxr) 
after verbs of fearing, 168 ; past 
tenses in final clauses, 167 ; pres. 
and past tenses after fir), 169 ; with 
&v in apodosis, 162, 172-173, 
iterative, 161 ; in protasis, 170, 
172 ; in general suppositions for 
subj., 175 ; in cond. rel. sentences, 
179 ; fut. in rel. clauses expressing 
purpose, &c, 181 ; with ecos, &c, 
182; with irpiv, 182-183; in in- 
direct discourse, 185 ; expressing 
a wish (past tenses), 191 ; in cau- 
sal sentences, 190 ; future with ov 
fir}, 193. See Present, &c. 

Indirect Discourse, 183 - 190. See 
Table of Contents. 

Indirect Questions, 183, 185, 186. 

Infinitive, 61, 90, 193-200 (see Ta- 
ble of Contents) ; tenses of, 156 
- 159 ; imperfect and pluperfect, 
how supplied, 159 ; with av, 162 
- 163, 176 ; in indirect discourse, 
184, 186-187, 194-195; gnomic 
tenses in, 161. 

Inflection, general principles, 17. 

Interrogative Sentences, 205 - 206. 

Ionic dialect, xix, 9, 15, 16. 

Iota subscript, 2. 

Iterative imperf. and aor. with av, 
161 ; Ionic forms in -<tkov, -o-KOfxrjv, 
161, 92. 

Koppa, 2, 53. 

Labials, 3, 7, 8. 

Linguals, 3, 7, 8. 

Liquids, 3, 8. • 

Liquid verbs, peculiar forms of fut. 
and aor., 73-74, 91. 

Local endings (-di, -dev, -de), 38. 

Locative case, relic of, 38. 

Logaoedic Verses, 216. 

Metathesis, 7. 

Middle voices, 61, 153-154; with 



causative sense, 154 ; peculiar 

meaning in certain verbs, 154 ; 

fut. mid. in pass, sense, 154. 
Moods, 61 ; finite, 61 ; syntax of, 

164 - 200, see Table of Contents. 
Movable consonants, 6. 
Mutes, 3 ; co-ordinate and cognate, 

3. 
Nasals, 3. 
Negatives, 206-208. See Ov and 

Nominative case, 18, 129, 113, 114, 
115 ; for vocative, 129 ; of third 
decl., how formed from stem, 24 
- 25 ; as subject, 114, 129 ; plural 
nom. with sing, verb, 114. Predi- 
cate nom., 115. 

Numbers, 17. 

Numerals (cardinal, ordinal, and 
num. adverbs), 51-53; declension 
of, 52. 

Object, defined, 113. 

Optative, 61, 88 - 89, 164 ; tenses of, 
156 - 159 ; future, 158, 159, 167, 
185, 189 ; in final clauses, 166 ; in 
object clauses with oiros, 167 ; with 
1X7} after verbs of fearing, 168 ; in 
conditional sentences, 171-172, 
174-175; in apodosis with &v, 
162, 171, 174, 176, 177; in cond. 
rel. sentences, 179, 180 ; by assimi- 
lation, 180-181; with ews, &c, 
182 ; with irpiv, 182 - 183 ; in in- 
direct discourse, 184, 185, 186, 
187-190; in causal sentences, 
190 ; in wishes, 191. 

Oxytones, 11. 

Palatals, 3, 7, 8. 

Participle, 61, 90, 200 - 205 (see Ta- 
ble of Contents) ; tenses of, 159 
- 160 ; in indirect discourse (like 
infin. ), 186 - 187, 204 ; present 
used for imperf., 160 ; aor. used 
without regard to time, 160, 203, 
204 ; with av, 162-163, 186, 204 ; 
with Xavddvoj, rvyxdvco, (p&dvw, 203 ; 
with dtareXeaj, oixo/xat., 6afxifa, 203 ; 
with 8r}\os and cpavepos, 204 ; with 
(rvvoida and avyytyvdoo-KOJ, 204 ; in 
gen. absol., 202 ; in accus. absol., 
202 ; denoting time, cause, &c,, 
purpose, condition, opposition, at- 
tendant circumstance, 201 - 202 ; 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



239 



with u>s, 202, 204 ; with aim, eutftfs, 
&c, 202 ; with are, olov, or ola, 
202 ; with wawep, 202 ; for prot- 
asis, 175 - 176. 

Particular and General Suppositions 
distinguished, 169 - 172. 

Passive voice, 61, 152 - 153 ; cognate 
accus. after, 152 ; construction 
after, when active has two cases 
(accus. retained), 152-153. 

Paroxy tones, 11. 

Perfect, 61, 77, 78, 83, 154 ; second 
perf., 61 ; of /u-form, 110 ; peri- 
phrastic form in certain cases, 74 
- 76 ; with meaning of present, 
155 ; as vivid future, 155 ; in de- 
pendent moods, 157, 158 ; gnomic, 
161 ; perf. infin. includes pluperf., 
159. 

Perispomena, 11. 

Pherecratic verses, 216. 

Place, accus. of (extent), 131 ; gen. 
of (within which), 141 ; dat. of, 
149. 

Pluperfect, 61, 77, 78, 83, 154 ; sec- 
ond plup., 61 ; periphrastic form 
in 3 pers. plur. pass, and mid. (ex- 
cept in pure verbs), 74-76. 

Prepositions, with gen., dat., and 
accus., 150 - 151 ; as adverbs, 151 ; 
in composition, 151, 147. 

Present, 61, 83, 154 ; expressing at- 
tempt, 155 ; for aor. in narration, 
154; of 77/00 and oi'xo/xcu as perf., 
155 ; of elfu as fut., 155 ; with 
TrdXai, &c, 155 ; in dependent 
moods, 156-159; pres. infin. and 
partic. as imperf., 159, 160; gno- 
mic, 160. 

Principal parts of a verb, 62 ; of a 
deponent verb, 62. 

Proclitics, 15. 

Prohibitions with /jltj, 192. 

Promising, &c, verbs of, with fut., 
pres., or aor., infin., 159. 

Pronominal adjectives and adverbs, 
60, 61. 

Pronouns. Personal and intensive, 
54, 55, 123, 124 ; reflexive, 55, 56, 
124 ; reciprocal, 56 ; possessive, 

56, 124, 125 ; demonstrative, 56, 

57, 125 ; interrogative, 58, 125, 
126 ; indefinite, 58, 126 ; relative, 



59, 126-129. See Relative Sen- 
tences. 

Protasis, 169, 178; ellipsis of, 175- 
176. 

Punctuation, 16. 

Questions, 205-206; indirect, 183, 
185, 186 ; alternative, 206 ; dubi- 
tative (with Subj.), 193. 

Reduplication, 9, 77 ; Attic, 78. 

Relative and Temporal Sentences, 
177-182 (see Table of Contents) ; 
conditional, 178-181, analogy of 
to forms of protasis, 178 ; infin. in 
rel. clause by assimilation, 195 

Root and stem defined, 17. 

San, 2, 53. 

Semivowels, 3. 

Sonants and Surds, 3. 

Specification, accus. of, 131. 

Stem and root defined, 17. See Ver- 
bal Stems. 

Subject and predicate defined, 113. 

Subject, nomin., 113-114; accus. 
(with infin.), 113-114. 

Subjunctive, 61, 88, 164 ; tenses of, 
156-157; in final clauses, 166, 
after past tenses, 166 - 167 ; in ob- 
ject clauses with oircos, 167 ; with 
/jltj after verbs of fearing, 168 ; in 
conditional sentences, 171, 173- 
174, 175 ; in cond. rel. sentences, 
179, 180 ; in rel. clauses express- 
ing, purpose (not Attic), 181 ; 
with ews, &c, 182 ; with irplv, 
182-183; changed to opt. after 
past tenses in indir. discourse, 
184, 186, 187, 188-189, 190; in 
questions of doubt, 193 ; with ov 
jul7}, 193 ; in exhortations, 192 ; in 
prohibitions with jultj (aor.), 192; 
in Horn, like fut. indie. 192, some- 
times with &v or K€, 162, 193. See 
"Av. 

Surds and Sonants, 3. 

Syllables, 9, 210 ; pure, 9 ; division 
of, 9 ; quantity of, 10 ; doubtful 
at end of verse, 210. 

Syncope, 7, 34, 35. 

Synizesis, 5. 

Tenses, 61 ; primary and secondary 
(or historical), 61, 156 ; syntax of, 
154-161 (see Table of Contents). 
See Present, &c. 



240 



GREEK INDEX. 



Tense-stems, 62, 63, 83, 84. 

Time, accus. of (extent), 131 ; gen. 
of (within which), 141 ; dat. of, 
149. 

Trochaic verses, 211 ; systems, 215. 

Yau or Digamma, 2, 32, 53, 78, 214. 

Verbal adjectives in -reos and -reop, 
90 ; personal and impersonal con- 
struction of, 205 ; dative of agent 
with, 148. 

Verbal stems, 79 - 83 ; final vowel 
lengthened in pnre verbs, 79 ; 
simple stem, 62-63, 79-80, 82 



- 83 ; present formed from simple 
stem (nine classes of verbs), 80 - 82. 

Verbs, conjugation of, 61-111 ; syn- 
tax of, 152-205. See Table of 
Contents. 

Verses, 209 ; catalectic and acatalec- 
tic, 209-210. 

Vocative case, 18, 129 ; voc. sing, of 
third decl., 26. 

Voices, 61, 152 - 154. 

Vowels, 2 ; open and close, 2. 

Wishes, expression of, 191. 

Wondering, verbs of, with el, 177. 



GKEEK INDEX. 



N. B. The figures refer to pages. 



A, privative, 112; rarely intensive, 112. 

At, Doric for el, 169. * 

-<u, sometimes elided in poetry, 6. 

'AKpodojiai, future, &e. of, 79. 

"Ascpos with article, 122. 

'AMtjXov, 56. 

"Atoo tw t\ ; or dXXo tl ; 206. 

"AXXos with article, 121. 

"Av, adverb, 161-163 (see Table of 
Contents) ; in protasis, 161, 169, 
173 - 174, 175 ; in cond. rel. sen- 
tences, 161, 178, 179, 180 ; in apod- 
osis, 161, 172, 174; omitted in 
protasis, 174, 175 ; in apodosis, 
173, 174 ; ebei, XPW> & c - without 
dp, 173 ; with infin. and partic, 
162-163,176,184,186,204; some- 
times in final clauses, &c, 161, 166, 
167. 

'Av (d), 169. See'Edir. 

"Apa ov and dpa p.rj, 205 - 206. 

-a/rat and -a/ro, Ionic endings for 
-prat, -pto, 92 ; sometimes in Attic, 
92. 

Avtos, declined, 54 ; nomin. always 
intensive, 54, 123 ; oblique cases 



both intensive and personal, 54, 
124 ; agreeing with an omitted pro- 
noun, 124 ; with article (the same), 
55 ; contracted with article, 55. 

"Axpi, until, 182. 

Ac in apodosis, 177. 

Ast with gen. and dat. (rarely accus.), 
138. 

Aeop.a.1 with accus. and gen., 138. 

Aeco, bind, contraction of, 96. 

AtjXos €ip.i with participle, 204. 

AiaXe-yoptai with dative, 147. 

AiareXiio with participle, 203. 

Ai\|;da>, contraction of, 96. 

Avo, 51, 52, 117. 

Ai>s-, augment of compounds of, 79. 

'Edv (et dp), 161, 162, 169, 173-174, 
175 ; et Ke in Horn., 169 ; el with 
subj., dp or Ke omitted, 174, 175. 

"ESei, xpfjv, &c., within fin. in apod- 
osis without dp, 173. 

El'0€ or cl "yap in wishes, 191. 

Eljxi, be, conjugation of, 107 ; accent 
of, 14, 15. 

E![*i, go, conjugation of, 108 ; pres. 
in future sense, 155. 



GREEK INDEX. 



241 



Etirov, 4>T]|xC, Xe'yco, how distinguished 
in construction of indirect dis- 
course, 195. 

El're . . . €'it€, €l'T€ . . . rj, 206. 

'Evavrios, with dat, 146 ; with gen., 
143. 

'Eljfjv with infin., in apodosis with- 
out av, 173. See"E5ei. 

"Ecrre, until, 182. 

"Eo-tiv ol', &c, 127. "E<JTLl> forws, 127. 
"Ranv od, 127. 

"Eo-xcitos with article, 124. 

"ETepos, drepos in crasis, 6. 

E3, augment of compounds of, 79. 

E$ iroieiv, 132 ; ed irpdrreiv, 133. 

Ev0v with genitive, 143. 

'E<j>' w or €<J>' <St€, with infin., 198 ; 
with fut. indie, 181. 

'Ecjwpdco with participle, 204, 160. 

"Ea>s, &tt€, &c, until, 182. 

Zdco, contraction of, 96. 

"Hkw, as perfect, 155. 

"Hv, if, 169. See'Ecb. 

®a\kL%<a with participle, 203. 

0avjj.d£(o el, 179, 189. 

"It]|jh., send, conjugation of, 109. 

Kcu in crasis, 5. 

Kal tov, and he, 123. 

Kcikcos iroi€iv, 132 ; /ca/ews irparreiv, 
133. 

Ketjxcu, foe, conjugation of, 110. 

KXivw, &c. perfect of, 83. 

Kpivco, &c. perfect of, 83. 

Ae-yco, <|)T]p.i, etirov, how distinguished 
in construction of indirect dis- 
course, 195. 

AavOdvco with participle, 203, 160. 

Md\ojjiai with dative, 147. 

Mc'tai and |X€Tap.€X€i, with gen. and 
dat., 137. 

Mc'XXw with infin. as periphrastic 
future, 76, 158. 

Micros with article, 122. 

Me'xpi, until, 182. 

Mtj, lest, in final and object clauses, 
165. 

Mfy not, 206 - 208 ; in final and ob- 
ject clauses with I'm, 8ttojs, &c, 
166 ; in protasis, 169 ; in cond. 
rel. sentences, 178 ; in rel. clauses 
expressing purpose, 181 ; in indi- 
rect discourse with infin. (irregu- 
larly), 184 ; in indir. questions 
11 



with el, 208 ; in wishes, 191 ; with, 
subj. and imper. in prohibitions, 
192 ; with subj. in questions of 
doubt, 193 ; with infin. (except in 
indir. disc), 207 ; with adjectives, 
207 ; as interrogative, 206. 

Mt]8€, |iT]8€ts, H-Tp-c, &c, 206. 

Mt|K€ti, 6. 

Mtj ov, with infin., 207-208, 196 
- 197 ; with participles and nouns, 
208. Mr), lest, followed by ob, not, 
166. 

Mi5pioi and \ivpioi distinguished, 53. 

Mw (fxri odv), 206. 

N movable, 6, 96. 

Ntj-, negative prefix, 112. 

Nofxijw with dative (like xptio^cu), 
148. 

'O piv ... 6 84, 122 ; 6 6V alone, 
123. 

"O and Sircos (for 6'rt or cos) in indi- 
rect quotations (poetic), 190. 

-oi rarely elided in poetry, 6. 

018a, inflection of, 111 ; with parti- 
ciple, 204. 

Oios T6, able, 127. 

Olo-e* 8 Spacrov; 192. 

Ol'xop.ai, as perfect, 155 ; with parti- 
ciple, 203. 

'OXtyov 8€i, 138. 

"OXos with article, 122. 

"Ottos, as final participle, 165 ; in 
indirect discourse for ws (poetic), 
190. See"0. 

"Octtis, declined, 59 ; in indirect 
questions, 205. 

"Ot for 6t€ (not 6'rt), 6. 

"On not elided in Attic, 6 ; in indi- 
rect quotations, 183, 184-186 ; in 
causal sentences, 190 ; before direct 
quotations, 183. 

Ov, &c, pronoun of third person, 54, 
123. 

Ov, ovk, o*x, 6, 206 - 208 ; used in 
apodosis (seldom in protasis), 169, 
206 ; in indirect discourse (even 
with infin.), 184; in rel. clauses 
with def. antecedent, 178 ; in cau- 
sal sentences, 190 ; as interroga- 
tive, 206. 

OvSi, ovSei's, o#r€, &c, 206. 

OvSl ttoXXov Set, 138. 

OvSels oVtis ov, everybody, 128. 



242 



GREEK INDEX. 



Ov jitj with subj. and fut. indie, 193. 

Outos, declined, 57 ; distinguished 
from ode in the historians, 125 ; in 
exclamations, 125 ; tovto with [xev 
and 8e, 125. 

OvTtos and ovtw, 6. 

"Q4>pa, as final particle, 166 ; until, 
182. 

HdXai with present, 155. 

lias, all, with article, 122. 

Ilepi not elided, 6, 78, 112. 

Ilepiopdca with participle, 204, 160. 

n\€<o, contraction of, 95. 

IIXvvco, &c. perfect of, 83. 

IIo\€fA€a> with dative, 147. 

IIoXXov Set, 138. 

Upi'y, with infin., 182-183, 200; 
with indie, subj., and opt., 182 
-183. 

IIplv ij, irpo<r0€v fy irpoT€pov r\ (used 
like ir pip), 183. 

IIpo not elided, 6, 78, 112. 

IXpdoiTO, &c. for irpoeLTo, &e, 109. 

'Prydco, contraction of, 96. 

2 inserted before terminations in perf. 
and aor. pass., 85 - 86. 

SvvoiSa and <rvy*yi"yvw<rKG) with parti- 
ciple, 204. 



TavTo, Tavrov, Tavi-ov, &c, 55. 

Tax' dv, 163. 

T«iva>, &c. perfect of, 83. 

-T€Os or -Teov, verbal in, 90, 205. 

Ti's, who ? tIs, any one, 58, 125, 126. 

Toi in crasis, 5. 

Tbv Kal t6v, 123. 

-tos, verbal adjeetive in, 90. 

Ttryxdvu, with participle, 203, 160. 

Xpa.op.ai, use, with dative, 148. 

Xprico, fut. of, 79 ; contraction of, 
96. 

^avepds €ifJ.L with participle, 204. 

$t) jii, say, conjugation of, 109-110; 
accent of, 14. 

^Kjpa, elirov, \4y<a, how distinguished 
in construction of indirect dis- 
course, 195. 

^>0dvw with participle, 203, 160. 

'As, as final particle, 165-167; ws 
dp, 166, 167 ; in indirect quota- 
tions, 183, 184-186; in causal sen- 
tences, 190; for (bare with infin., 
198 ; with indie, 181 ; with parti- 
ciples, 202, 204. 

"Oo-t€, with indie, 181 ; with infin., 
198. 

w I2<|>eXov in wishes, 191. 



THE END. 



University Press, Cambridge : Printed by Welch, Bigelow, & Co. 



From the Nation, New York. 

A Latin Reader : Consisting of Selections from Phaedrus, Ca3sar, &c, 
with copious Notes and Vocabulary. Prepared by William F. Allen, A.M., 
Professor of Ancient Languages and History in the University of Wiscon- 
sin, and Joseph H. Allen, Cambridge, Mass. (Boston : Edwin Ginn. 
1869.) It is difficult to appreciate the gulf that separates this " Reader," in 
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From President Hill, of Harvard University. 

Cambridge, Aug. 7, 1868. 
Dear Sir, — Of the details of your "Latin Grammar" I am not a 
competent judge ; but the general plan and general execution I feel free 
to commend very warmly. The book seems to me to contain all that is 



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From Prof. Bo wen, of Harvard University. 

Harvard College, Aug. 26, 1868. 
Dear Sir, — Your book evidently has great merits ; it seems to me a 
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cise and still more lucid, methodical, and trustworthy. It will then 
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From Prof Henry W. Haynes, of the University of Vermont 

University of Vermont, 

Burlington, Sep". 9, 1868. 

The special points alluded to in the preface add greatly to its value, 
particularly the formal recognition of the locative case, and the careful 
treatment of conditional sentences, in which I was much pleased with the 
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I hope the book will speedily find its way into preparatory classical 
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From W. P. Atkinson, Cambridge. 

Cambridge, Sept. 14, 1868. 
Dear Sir, — I have had no opportunity to put your Grammar to the 
only sure test, namely, use in the school-room ; but I heartily agree with 
all that President Hill and Professor Bowen have said of its general plan 
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From the Commonwealth, Boston. 

The book is marked by fine discretion, and is equally to be commend- 
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